hacktricks
  • 👾Welcome!
    • HackTricks
  • 🤩Generic Methodologies & Resources
    • Pentesting Methodology
    • External Recon Methodology
      • Wide Source Code Search
      • Github Dorks & Leaks
    • Pentesting Network
      • DHCPv6
      • EIGRP Attacks
      • GLBP & HSRP Attacks
      • IDS and IPS Evasion
      • Lateral VLAN Segmentation Bypass
      • Network Protocols Explained (ESP)
      • Nmap Summary (ESP)
      • Pentesting IPv6
      • Spoofing LLMNR, NBT-NS, mDNS/DNS and WPAD and Relay Attacks
      • Spoofing SSDP and UPnP Devices with EvilSSDP
    • Pentesting Wifi
      • Evil Twin EAP-TLS
    • Phishing Methodology
      • Clone a Website
      • Detecting Phishing
      • Phishing Files & Documents
    • Basic Forensic Methodology
      • Baseline Monitoring
      • Anti-Forensic Techniques
      • Docker Forensics
      • Image Acquisition & Mount
      • Linux Forensics
      • Malware Analysis
      • Memory dump analysis
        • Volatility - CheatSheet
      • Partitions/File Systems/Carving
        • File/Data Carving & Recovery Tools
      • Pcap Inspection
        • DNSCat pcap analysis
        • Suricata & Iptables cheatsheet
        • USB Keystrokes
        • Wifi Pcap Analysis
        • Wireshark tricks
      • Specific Software/File-Type Tricks
        • Decompile compiled python binaries (exe, elf) - Retreive from .pyc
        • Browser Artifacts
        • Deofuscation vbs (cscript.exe)
        • Local Cloud Storage
        • Office file analysis
        • PDF File analysis
        • PNG tricks
        • Video and Audio file analysis
        • ZIPs tricks
      • Windows Artifacts
        • Interesting Windows Registry Keys
    • Brute Force - CheatSheet
    • Python Sandbox Escape & Pyscript
      • Bypass Python sandboxes
        • LOAD_NAME / LOAD_CONST opcode OOB Read
      • Class Pollution (Python's Prototype Pollution)
      • Python Internal Read Gadgets
      • Pyscript
      • venv
      • Web Requests
      • Bruteforce hash (few chars)
      • Basic Python
    • Exfiltration
    • Tunneling and Port Forwarding
    • Threat Modeling
    • Search Exploits
    • Shells (Linux, Windows, MSFVenom)
      • MSFVenom - CheatSheet
      • Shells - Windows
      • Shells - Linux
      • Full TTYs
  • 🐧Linux Hardening
    • Checklist - Linux Privilege Escalation
    • Linux Privilege Escalation
      • Arbitrary File Write to Root
      • Cisco - vmanage
      • Containerd (ctr) Privilege Escalation
      • D-Bus Enumeration & Command Injection Privilege Escalation
      • Docker Security
        • Abusing Docker Socket for Privilege Escalation
        • AppArmor
        • AuthZ& AuthN - Docker Access Authorization Plugin
        • CGroups
        • Docker --privileged
        • Docker Breakout / Privilege Escalation
          • release_agent exploit - Relative Paths to PIDs
          • Docker release_agent cgroups escape
          • Sensitive Mounts
        • Namespaces
          • CGroup Namespace
          • IPC Namespace
          • PID Namespace
          • Mount Namespace
          • Network Namespace
          • Time Namespace
          • User Namespace
          • UTS Namespace
        • Seccomp
        • Weaponizing Distroless
      • Escaping from Jails
      • euid, ruid, suid
      • Interesting Groups - Linux Privesc
        • lxd/lxc Group - Privilege escalation
      • Logstash
      • ld.so privesc exploit example
      • Linux Active Directory
      • Linux Capabilities
      • NFS no_root_squash/no_all_squash misconfiguration PE
      • Node inspector/CEF debug abuse
      • Payloads to execute
      • RunC Privilege Escalation
      • SELinux
      • Socket Command Injection
      • Splunk LPE and Persistence
      • SSH Forward Agent exploitation
      • Wildcards Spare tricks
    • Useful Linux Commands
    • Bypass Linux Restrictions
      • Bypass FS protections: read-only / no-exec / Distroless
        • DDexec / EverythingExec
    • Linux Environment Variables
    • Linux Post-Exploitation
      • PAM - Pluggable Authentication Modules
    • FreeIPA Pentesting
  • 🍏MacOS Hardening
    • macOS Security & Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Apps - Inspecting, debugging and Fuzzing
        • Introduction to x64
        • Introduction to ARM64v8
      • macOS AppleFS
      • macOS Bypassing Firewalls
      • macOS Defensive Apps
      • macOS GCD - Grand Central Dispatch
      • macOS Kernel & System Extensions
        • macOS IOKit
        • macOS Kernel Extensions
        • macOS Kernel Vulnerabilities
        • macOS System Extensions
      • macOS Network Services & Protocols
      • macOS File Extension & URL scheme app handlers
      • macOS Files, Folders, Binaries & Memory
        • macOS Bundles
        • macOS Installers Abuse
        • macOS Memory Dumping
        • macOS Sensitive Locations & Interesting Daemons
        • macOS Universal binaries & Mach-O Format
      • macOS Objective-C
      • macOS Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Process Abuse
        • macOS Dirty NIB
        • macOS Chromium Injection
        • macOS Electron Applications Injection
        • macOS Function Hooking
        • macOS IPC - Inter Process Communication
          • macOS MIG - Mach Interface Generator
          • macOS XPC
            • macOS XPC Authorization
            • macOS XPC Connecting Process Check
              • macOS PID Reuse
              • macOS xpc_connection_get_audit_token Attack
          • macOS Thread Injection via Task port
        • macOS Java Applications Injection
        • macOS Library Injection
          • macOS Dyld Hijacking & DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES
          • macOS Dyld Process
        • macOS Perl Applications Injection
        • macOS Python Applications Injection
        • macOS Ruby Applications Injection
        • macOS .Net Applications Injection
      • macOS Security Protections
        • macOS Gatekeeper / Quarantine / XProtect
        • macOS Launch/Environment Constraints & Trust Cache
        • macOS Sandbox
          • macOS Default Sandbox Debug
          • macOS Sandbox Debug & Bypass
            • macOS Office Sandbox Bypasses
        • macOS SIP
        • macOS TCC
          • macOS Apple Events
          • macOS TCC Bypasses
            • macOS Apple Scripts
          • macOS TCC Payloads
        • macOS Dangerous Entitlements & TCC perms
        • macOS FS Tricks
          • macOS xattr-acls extra stuff
      • macOS Users
    • macOS Red Teaming
      • macOS MDM
        • Enrolling Devices in Other Organisations
        • macOS Serial Number
      • macOS Keychain
    • macOS Useful Commands
    • macOS Auto Start
  • 🪟Windows Hardening
    • Checklist - Local Windows Privilege Escalation
    • Windows Local Privilege Escalation
      • Abusing Tokens
      • Access Tokens
      • ACLs - DACLs/SACLs/ACEs
      • AppendData/AddSubdirectory permission over service registry
      • Create MSI with WIX
      • COM Hijacking
      • Dll Hijacking
        • Writable Sys Path +Dll Hijacking Privesc
      • DPAPI - Extracting Passwords
      • From High Integrity to SYSTEM with Name Pipes
      • Integrity Levels
      • JuicyPotato
      • Leaked Handle Exploitation
      • MSI Wrapper
      • Named Pipe Client Impersonation
      • Privilege Escalation with Autoruns
      • RoguePotato, PrintSpoofer, SharpEfsPotato, GodPotato
      • SeDebug + SeImpersonate copy token
      • SeImpersonate from High To System
      • Windows C Payloads
    • Active Directory Methodology
      • Abusing Active Directory ACLs/ACEs
        • Shadow Credentials
      • AD Certificates
        • AD CS Account Persistence
        • AD CS Domain Escalation
        • AD CS Domain Persistence
        • AD CS Certificate Theft
      • AD information in printers
      • AD DNS Records
      • ASREPRoast
      • BloodHound & Other AD Enum Tools
      • Constrained Delegation
      • Custom SSP
      • DCShadow
      • DCSync
      • Diamond Ticket
      • DSRM Credentials
      • External Forest Domain - OneWay (Inbound) or bidirectional
      • External Forest Domain - One-Way (Outbound)
      • Golden Ticket
      • Kerberoast
      • Kerberos Authentication
      • Kerberos Double Hop Problem
      • LAPS
      • MSSQL AD Abuse
      • Over Pass the Hash/Pass the Key
      • Pass the Ticket
      • Password Spraying / Brute Force
      • PrintNightmare
      • Force NTLM Privileged Authentication
      • Privileged Groups
      • RDP Sessions Abuse
      • Resource-based Constrained Delegation
      • Security Descriptors
      • SID-History Injection
      • Silver Ticket
      • Skeleton Key
      • Unconstrained Delegation
    • Windows Security Controls
      • UAC - User Account Control
    • NTLM
      • Places to steal NTLM creds
    • Lateral Movement
      • AtExec / SchtasksExec
      • DCOM Exec
      • PsExec/Winexec/ScExec
      • SmbExec/ScExec
      • WinRM
      • WmicExec
    • Pivoting to the Cloud
    • Stealing Windows Credentials
      • Windows Credentials Protections
      • Mimikatz
      • WTS Impersonator
    • Basic Win CMD for Pentesters
    • Basic PowerShell for Pentesters
      • PowerView/SharpView
    • Antivirus (AV) Bypass
  • 📱Mobile Pentesting
    • Android APK Checklist
    • Android Applications Pentesting
      • Android Applications Basics
      • Android Task Hijacking
      • ADB Commands
      • APK decompilers
      • AVD - Android Virtual Device
      • Bypass Biometric Authentication (Android)
      • content:// protocol
      • Drozer Tutorial
        • Exploiting Content Providers
      • Exploiting a debuggeable application
      • Frida Tutorial
        • Frida Tutorial 1
        • Frida Tutorial 2
        • Frida Tutorial 3
        • Objection Tutorial
      • Google CTF 2018 - Shall We Play a Game?
      • Install Burp Certificate
      • Intent Injection
      • Make APK Accept CA Certificate
      • Manual DeObfuscation
      • React Native Application
      • Reversing Native Libraries
      • Smali - Decompiling/[Modifying]/Compiling
      • Spoofing your location in Play Store
      • Tapjacking
      • Webview Attacks
    • iOS Pentesting Checklist
    • iOS Pentesting
      • iOS App Extensions
      • iOS Basics
      • iOS Basic Testing Operations
      • iOS Burp Suite Configuration
      • iOS Custom URI Handlers / Deeplinks / Custom Schemes
      • iOS Extracting Entitlements From Compiled Application
      • iOS Frida Configuration
      • iOS Hooking With Objection
      • iOS Protocol Handlers
      • iOS Serialisation and Encoding
      • iOS Testing Environment
      • iOS UIActivity Sharing
      • iOS Universal Links
      • iOS UIPasteboard
      • iOS WebViews
    • Cordova Apps
    • Xamarin Apps
  • 👽Network Services Pentesting
    • Pentesting JDWP - Java Debug Wire Protocol
    • Pentesting Printers
    • Pentesting SAP
    • Pentesting VoIP
      • Basic VoIP Protocols
        • SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
    • Pentesting Remote GdbServer
    • 7/tcp/udp - Pentesting Echo
    • 21 - Pentesting FTP
      • FTP Bounce attack - Scan
      • FTP Bounce - Download 2ºFTP file
    • 22 - Pentesting SSH/SFTP
    • 23 - Pentesting Telnet
    • 25,465,587 - Pentesting SMTP/s
      • SMTP Smuggling
      • SMTP - Commands
    • 43 - Pentesting WHOIS
    • 49 - Pentesting TACACS+
    • 53 - Pentesting DNS
    • 69/UDP TFTP/Bittorrent-tracker
    • 79 - Pentesting Finger
    • 80,443 - Pentesting Web Methodology
      • 403 & 401 Bypasses
      • AEM - Adobe Experience Cloud
      • Angular
      • Apache
      • Artifactory Hacking guide
      • Bolt CMS
      • Buckets
        • Firebase Database
      • CGI
      • DotNetNuke (DNN)
      • Drupal
      • Electron Desktop Apps
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via preload code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via Electron internal code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via IPC
      • Flask
      • NodeJS Express
      • Git
      • Golang
      • GWT - Google Web Toolkit
      • Grafana
      • GraphQL
      • H2 - Java SQL database
      • IIS - Internet Information Services
      • ImageMagick Security
      • JBOSS
      • JIRA
      • Joomla
      • JSP
      • Laravel
      • Moodle
      • Nginx
      • PHP Tricks
        • PHP - Useful Functions & disable_functions/open_basedir bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - php-fpm/FastCGI
          • disable_functions bypass - dl function
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 7.0-7.4 (*nix only)
          • disable_functions bypass - Imagick <= 3.3.0 PHP >= 5.4 Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.x Shellshock Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.2.4 ionCube extension Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP <= 5.2.9 on windows
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.4 and 5.2.5 PHP cURL
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP safe_mode bypass via proc_open() and custom environment Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP Perl Extension Safe_mode Bypass Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.3 - Win32std ext Protections Bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2 - FOpen Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - via mem
          • disable_functions bypass - mod_cgi
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 4 >= 4.2.0, PHP 5 pcntl_exec
        • PHP - RCE abusing object creation: new $_GET["a"]($_GET["b"])
        • PHP SSRF
      • Python
      • Rocket Chat
      • Special HTTP headers
      • Source code Review / SAST Tools
      • Spring Actuators
      • Symfony
      • Tomcat
        • Basic Tomcat Info
      • Uncovering CloudFlare
      • VMWare (ESX, VCenter...)
      • WAF Bypass
      • Web API Pentesting
      • WebDav
      • Werkzeug / Flask Debug
      • Wordpress
    • 88tcp/udp - Pentesting Kerberos
      • Harvesting tickets from Windows
      • Harvesting tickets from Linux
    • 110,995 - Pentesting POP
    • 111/TCP/UDP - Pentesting Portmapper
    • 113 - Pentesting Ident
    • 123/udp - Pentesting NTP
    • 135, 593 - Pentesting MSRPC
    • 137,138,139 - Pentesting NetBios
    • 139,445 - Pentesting SMB
      • rpcclient enumeration
    • 143,993 - Pentesting IMAP
    • 161,162,10161,10162/udp - Pentesting SNMP
      • Cisco SNMP
      • SNMP RCE
    • 194,6667,6660-7000 - Pentesting IRC
    • 264 - Pentesting Check Point FireWall-1
    • 389, 636, 3268, 3269 - Pentesting LDAP
    • 500/udp - Pentesting IPsec/IKE VPN
    • 502 - Pentesting Modbus
    • 512 - Pentesting Rexec
    • 513 - Pentesting Rlogin
    • 514 - Pentesting Rsh
    • 515 - Pentesting Line Printer Daemon (LPD)
    • 548 - Pentesting Apple Filing Protocol (AFP)
    • 554,8554 - Pentesting RTSP
    • 623/UDP/TCP - IPMI
    • 631 - Internet Printing Protocol(IPP)
    • 700 - Pentesting EPP
    • 873 - Pentesting Rsync
    • 1026 - Pentesting Rusersd
    • 1080 - Pentesting Socks
    • 1098/1099/1050 - Pentesting Java RMI - RMI-IIOP
    • 1414 - Pentesting IBM MQ
    • 1433 - Pentesting MSSQL - Microsoft SQL Server
      • Types of MSSQL Users
    • 1521,1522-1529 - Pentesting Oracle TNS Listener
    • 1723 - Pentesting PPTP
    • 1883 - Pentesting MQTT (Mosquitto)
    • 2049 - Pentesting NFS Service
    • 2301,2381 - Pentesting Compaq/HP Insight Manager
    • 2375, 2376 Pentesting Docker
    • 3128 - Pentesting Squid
    • 3260 - Pentesting ISCSI
    • 3299 - Pentesting SAPRouter
    • 3306 - Pentesting Mysql
    • 3389 - Pentesting RDP
    • 3632 - Pentesting distcc
    • 3690 - Pentesting Subversion (svn server)
    • 3702/UDP - Pentesting WS-Discovery
    • 4369 - Pentesting Erlang Port Mapper Daemon (epmd)
    • 4786 - Cisco Smart Install
    • 4840 - OPC Unified Architecture
    • 5000 - Pentesting Docker Registry
    • 5353/UDP Multicast DNS (mDNS) and DNS-SD
    • 5432,5433 - Pentesting Postgresql
    • 5439 - Pentesting Redshift
    • 5555 - Android Debug Bridge
    • 5601 - Pentesting Kibana
    • 5671,5672 - Pentesting AMQP
    • 5800,5801,5900,5901 - Pentesting VNC
    • 5984,6984 - Pentesting CouchDB
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting WinRM
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting OMI
    • 6000 - Pentesting X11
    • 6379 - Pentesting Redis
    • 8009 - Pentesting Apache JServ Protocol (AJP)
    • 8086 - Pentesting InfluxDB
    • 8089 - Pentesting Splunkd
    • 8333,18333,38333,18444 - Pentesting Bitcoin
    • 9000 - Pentesting FastCGI
    • 9001 - Pentesting HSQLDB
    • 9042/9160 - Pentesting Cassandra
    • 9100 - Pentesting Raw Printing (JetDirect, AppSocket, PDL-datastream)
    • 9200 - Pentesting Elasticsearch
    • 10000 - Pentesting Network Data Management Protocol (ndmp)
    • 11211 - Pentesting Memcache
      • Memcache Commands
    • 15672 - Pentesting RabbitMQ Management
    • 24007,24008,24009,49152 - Pentesting GlusterFS
    • 27017,27018 - Pentesting MongoDB
    • 44134 - Pentesting Tiller (Helm)
    • 44818/UDP/TCP - Pentesting EthernetIP
    • 47808/udp - Pentesting BACNet
    • 50030,50060,50070,50075,50090 - Pentesting Hadoop
  • 🕸️Pentesting Web
    • Web Vulnerabilities Methodology
    • Reflecting Techniques - PoCs and Polygloths CheatSheet
      • Web Vulns List
    • 2FA/OTP Bypass
    • Account Takeover
    • Browser Extension Pentesting Methodology
      • BrowExt - ClickJacking
      • BrowExt - permissions & host_permissions
      • BrowExt - XSS Example
    • Bypass Payment Process
    • Captcha Bypass
    • Cache Poisoning and Cache Deception
      • Cache Poisoning to DoS
    • Clickjacking
    • Client Side Template Injection (CSTI)
    • Client Side Path Traversal
    • Command Injection
    • Content Security Policy (CSP) Bypass
      • CSP bypass: self + 'unsafe-inline' with Iframes
    • Cookies Hacking
      • Cookie Tossing
      • Cookie Jar Overflow
      • Cookie Bomb
    • CORS - Misconfigurations & Bypass
    • CRLF (%0D%0A) Injection
    • CSRF (Cross Site Request Forgery)
    • Dangling Markup - HTML scriptless injection
      • SS-Leaks
    • Dependency Confusion
    • Deserialization
      • NodeJS - __proto__ & prototype Pollution
        • Client Side Prototype Pollution
        • Express Prototype Pollution Gadgets
        • Prototype Pollution to RCE
      • Java JSF ViewState (.faces) Deserialization
      • Java DNS Deserialization, GadgetProbe and Java Deserialization Scanner
      • Basic Java Deserialization (ObjectInputStream, readObject)
      • PHP - Deserialization + Autoload Classes
      • CommonsCollection1 Payload - Java Transformers to Rutime exec() and Thread Sleep
      • Basic .Net deserialization (ObjectDataProvider gadget, ExpandedWrapper, and Json.Net)
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE knowing the secrets
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE without knowing the secrets
      • Python Yaml Deserialization
      • JNDI - Java Naming and Directory Interface & Log4Shell
    • Domain/Subdomain takeover
    • Email Injections
    • File Inclusion/Path traversal
      • phar:// deserialization
      • LFI2RCE via PHP Filters
      • LFI2RCE via Nginx temp files
      • LFI2RCE via PHP_SESSION_UPLOAD_PROGRESS
      • LFI2RCE via Segmentation Fault
      • LFI2RCE via phpinfo()
      • LFI2RCE Via temp file uploads
      • LFI2RCE via Eternal waiting
      • LFI2RCE Via compress.zlib + PHP_STREAM_PREFER_STUDIO + Path Disclosure
    • File Upload
      • PDF Upload - XXE and CORS bypass
    • Formula/CSV/Doc/LaTeX/GhostScript Injection
    • gRPC-Web Pentest
    • HTTP Connection Contamination
    • HTTP Connection Request Smuggling
    • HTTP Request Smuggling / HTTP Desync Attack
      • Browser HTTP Request Smuggling
      • Request Smuggling in HTTP/2 Downgrades
    • HTTP Response Smuggling / Desync
    • Upgrade Header Smuggling
    • hop-by-hop headers
    • IDOR
    • Integer Overflow
    • JWT Vulnerabilities (Json Web Tokens)
    • LDAP Injection
    • Login Bypass
      • Login bypass List
    • NoSQL injection
    • OAuth to Account takeover
    • Open Redirect
    • Parameter Pollution
    • Phone Number Injections
    • PostMessage Vulnerabilities
      • Blocking main page to steal postmessage
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 1
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 2
      • Steal postmessage modifying iframe location
    • Proxy / WAF Protections Bypass
    • Race Condition
    • Rate Limit Bypass
    • Registration & Takeover Vulnerabilities
    • Regular expression Denial of Service - ReDoS
    • Reset/Forgotten Password Bypass
    • SAML Attacks
      • SAML Basics
    • Server Side Inclusion/Edge Side Inclusion Injection
    • SQL Injection
      • MS Access SQL Injection
      • MSSQL Injection
      • MySQL injection
        • MySQL File priv to SSRF/RCE
      • Oracle injection
      • Cypher Injection (neo4j)
      • PostgreSQL injection
        • dblink/lo_import data exfiltration
        • PL/pgSQL Password Bruteforce
        • Network - Privesc, Port Scanner and NTLM chanllenge response disclosure
        • Big Binary Files Upload (PostgreSQL)
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Languages
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Extensions
      • SQLMap - Cheetsheat
        • Second Order Injection - SQLMap
    • SSRF (Server Side Request Forgery)
      • URL Format Bypass
      • SSRF Vulnerable Platforms
      • Cloud SSRF
    • SSTI (Server Side Template Injection)
      • EL - Expression Language
      • Jinja2 SSTI
    • Reverse Tab Nabbing
    • Unicode Injection
      • Unicode Normalization
    • WebSocket Attacks
    • Web Tool - WFuzz
    • XPATH injection
    • XSLT Server Side Injection (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations)
    • XXE - XEE - XML External Entity
    • XSS (Cross Site Scripting)
      • Abusing Service Workers
      • Chrome Cache to XSS
      • Debugging Client Side JS
      • Dom Clobbering
      • DOM Invader
      • DOM XSS
      • Iframes in XSS, CSP and SOP
      • JS Hoisting
      • Misc JS Tricks & Relevant Info
      • PDF Injection
      • Server Side XSS (Dynamic PDF)
      • Shadow DOM
      • SOME - Same Origin Method Execution
      • Sniff Leak
      • Steal Info JS
      • XSS in Markdown
    • XSSI (Cross-Site Script Inclusion)
    • XS-Search/XS-Leaks
      • Connection Pool Examples
      • Connection Pool by Destination Example
      • Cookie Bomb + Onerror XS Leak
      • URL Max Length - Client Side
      • performance.now example
      • performance.now + Force heavy task
      • Event Loop Blocking + Lazy images
      • JavaScript Execution XS Leak
      • CSS Injection
        • CSS Injection Code
  • ⛈️Cloud Security
    • Pentesting Kubernetes
    • Pentesting Cloud (AWS, GCP, Az...)
    • Pentesting CI/CD (Github, Jenkins, Terraform...)
  • 😎Hardware/Physical Access
    • Physical Attacks
    • Escaping from KIOSKs
    • Firmware Analysis
      • Bootloader testing
      • Firmware Integrity
  • 🎯Binary Exploitation
    • Basic Binary Exploitation Methodology
      • ELF Basic Information
      • Exploiting Tools
        • PwnTools
    • Stack Overflow
      • Pointer Redirecting
      • Ret2win
        • Ret2win - arm64
      • Stack Shellcode
        • Stack Shellcode - arm64
      • Stack Pivoting - EBP2Ret - EBP chaining
      • Uninitialized Variables
    • ROP - Return Oriented Programing
      • BROP - Blind Return Oriented Programming
      • Ret2csu
      • Ret2dlresolve
      • Ret2esp / Ret2reg
      • Ret2lib
        • Leaking libc address with ROP
          • Leaking libc - template
        • One Gadget
        • Ret2lib + Printf leak - arm64
      • Ret2syscall
        • Ret2syscall - ARM64
      • Ret2vDSO
      • SROP - Sigreturn-Oriented Programming
        • SROP - ARM64
    • Array Indexing
    • Integer Overflow
    • Format Strings
      • Format Strings - Arbitrary Read Example
      • Format Strings Template
    • Heap
      • Use After Free
      • Heap Overflow
    • Common Binary Exploitation Protections & Bypasses
      • ASLR
        • Ret2plt
        • Ret2ret & Reo2pop
      • CET & Shadow Stack
      • Libc Protections
      • Memory Tagging Extension (MTE)
      • No-exec / NX
      • PIE
        • BF Addresses in the Stack
      • Relro
      • Stack Canaries
        • BF Forked & Threaded Stack Canaries
        • Print Stack Canary
    • Write What Where 2 Exec
      • WWW2Exec - atexit()
      • WWW2Exec - .dtors & .fini_array
      • WWW2Exec - GOT/PLT
      • WWW2Exec - __malloc_hook
    • Common Exploiting Problems
    • Windows Exploiting (Basic Guide - OSCP lvl)
    • Linux Exploiting (Basic) (SPA)
  • 🔩Reversing
    • Reversing Tools & Basic Methods
      • Angr
        • Angr - Examples
      • Z3 - Satisfiability Modulo Theories (SMT)
      • Cheat Engine
      • Blobrunner
    • Common API used in Malware
    • Word Macros
  • 🔮Crypto & Stego
    • Cryptographic/Compression Algorithms
      • Unpacking binaries
    • Certificates
    • Cipher Block Chaining CBC-MAC
    • Crypto CTFs Tricks
    • Electronic Code Book (ECB)
    • Hash Length Extension Attack
    • Padding Oracle
    • RC4 - Encrypt&Decrypt
    • Stego Tricks
    • Esoteric languages
    • Blockchain & Crypto Currencies
  • 🦂C2
    • Salseo
    • ICMPsh
    • Cobalt Strike
  • ✍️TODO
    • Other Big References
    • Rust Basics
    • More Tools
    • MISC
    • Pentesting DNS
    • Hardware Hacking
      • I2C
      • UART
      • Radio
      • JTAG
      • SPI
    • Radio Hacking
      • Pentesting RFID
      • Infrared
      • Sub-GHz RF
      • iButton
      • Flipper Zero
        • FZ - NFC
        • FZ - Sub-GHz
        • FZ - Infrared
        • FZ - iButton
        • FZ - 125kHz RFID
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由 GitBook 提供支持
在本页
  • 基本信息
  • 流程
  • 存根
  • 查找惰性符号
  • apple[]参数向量
  • dyld_all_image_infos
  • dyld环境变量
  • 调试dyld
  • 其他
  • 参考资料
  1. MacOS Hardening
  2. macOS Security & Privilege Escalation
  3. macOS Process Abuse
  4. macOS Library Injection

macOS Dyld Process

上一页macOS Dyld Hijacking & DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES下一页macOS Perl Applications Injection

最后更新于1年前

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基本信息

Mach-o 二进制文件的真正入口点是动态链接器,在 LC_LOAD_DYLINKER 中定义,通常为 /usr/lib/dyld。

这个链接器需要定位所有可执行库,在内存中映射它们,并链接所有非懒加载库。只有在此过程完成后,二进制文件的入口点才会被执行。

当然,dyld 没有任何依赖(它使用系统调用和 libSystem 片段)。

如果此链接器包含任何漏洞,因为它在执行任何二进制文件(甚至是高度特权的二进制文件)之前被执行,将有可能提升权限。

流程

Dyld 将由 dyldboostrap::start 加载,它还会加载诸如栈保护之类的东西。这是因为此函数将在其**apple参数向量中接收此类敏感的值**。

dyls::_main() 是 dyld 的入口点,它的第一个任务是运行 configureProcessRestrictions(),通常会限制**DYLD_***环境变量,详细说明在:

然后,它映射 dyld 共享缓存,其中预链接了所有重要的系统库,然后映射二进制文件依赖的库,并递归继续,直到加载所有需要的库。因此:

  1. 它开始加载插入的库,使用 DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES(如果允许)

  2. 然后是共享缓存中的库

  3. 然后是导入的库

  4. 然后继续递归导入库

一旦所有库都加载完毕,这些库的初始化程序将被运行。这些程序使用**__attribute__((constructor))编写,在 LC_ROUTINES[_64] 中定义(现在已弃用),或者通过指针在一个带有 S_MOD_INIT_FUNC_POINTERS 标志的部分中(通常为:__DATA.__MOD_INIT_FUNC**)。

终结器使用**__attribute__((destructor))编写,并位于一个带有 S_MOD_TERM_FUNC_POINTERS 标志的部分中(__DATA.__mod_term_func**)。

存根

macOS 中的所有二进制文件都是动态链接的。因此,它们包含一些存根部分,帮助二进制文件在不同的机器和上下文中跳转到正确的代码。在执行二进制文件时,需要 dyld 来解析这些地址(至少是非懒加载的地址)。

二进制文件中的一些存根部分:

  • __TEXT.__[auth_]stubs:来自 __DATA 部分的指针

  • __TEXT.__stub_helper:调用带有要调用函数信息的动态链接的小代码

  • __DATA.__[auth_]got:全局偏移表(指向导入函数的地址,在解析后绑定(在加载时绑定,因为它标记为 S_NON_LAZY_SYMBOL_POINTERS))

  • __DATA.__nl_symbol_ptr:非懒加载符号指针(在加载时绑定,因为它标记为 S_NON_LAZY_SYMBOL_POINTERS)

  • __DATA.__la_symbol_ptr:惰性符号指针(首次访问时绑定)

请注意,带有前缀 "auth_" 的指针使用一个进程内加密密钥进行保护(PAC)。此外,可以使用 arm64 指令 BLRA[A/B] 在跟随指针之前验证指针。而 RETA[A/B] 可以用于替代 RET 地址。 实际上,__TEXT.__auth_stubs 中的代码将使用 braa 而不是 bl 来调用请求的函数以验证指针。

还要注意,当前的 dyld 版本将所有内容加载为非懒加载。

查找惰性符号

//gcc load.c -o load
#include <stdio.h>
int main (int argc, char **argv, char **envp, char **apple)
{
printf("Hi\n");
}

有趣的反汇编部分:

; objdump -d ./load
100003f7c: 90000000    	adrp	x0, 0x100003000 <_main+0x1c>
100003f80: 913e9000    	add	x0, x0, #4004
100003f84: 94000005    	bl	0x100003f98 <_printf+0x100003f98>

可以看到跳转到调用 printf 的位置是在 __TEXT.__stubs:

objdump --section-headers ./load

./load:	file format mach-o arm64

Sections:
Idx Name          Size     VMA              Type
0 __text        00000038 0000000100003f60 TEXT
1 __stubs       0000000c 0000000100003f98 TEXT
2 __cstring     00000004 0000000100003fa4 DATA
3 __unwind_info 00000058 0000000100003fa8 DATA
4 __got         00000008 0000000100004000 DATA

在**__stubs**部分的反汇编中:

objdump -d --section=__stubs ./load

./load:	file format mach-o arm64

Disassembly of section __TEXT,__stubs:

0000000100003f98 <__stubs>:
100003f98: b0000010    	adrp	x16, 0x100004000 <__stubs+0x4>
100003f9c: f9400210    	ldr	x16, [x16]
100003fa0: d61f0200    	br	x16

你可以看到我们正在跳转到GOT的地址,在这种情况下,它是通过非延迟解析的,将包含printf函数的地址。

在其他情况下,而不是直接跳转到GOT,它可以跳转到**__DATA.__la_symbol_ptr,它将加载一个代表它正在尝试加载的函数的值,然后跳转到__TEXT.__stub_helper,它跳转到包含dyld_stub_binder地址的__DATA.__nl_symbol_ptr,该函数接受函数编号和地址作为参数。 在找到搜索的函数地址后,该最后一个函数将其写入__TEXT.__stub_helper**中的相应位置,以避免将来进行查找。

但请注意,当前dyld版本将所有内容都作为非延迟加载。

Dyld操作码

最后,**dyld_stub_binder**需要找到指定的函数并将其写入正确的地址,以免再次搜索。为此,它在dyld内部使用操作码(有限状态机)。

apple[]参数向量

在macOS中,主函数实际上接收4个参数而不是3个。第四个称为apple,每个条目的形式为key=value。例如:

// gcc apple.c -o apple
#include <stdio.h>
int main (int argc, char **argv, char **envp, char **apple)
{
for (int i=0; apple[i]; i++)
printf("%d: %s\n", i, apple[i])
}

结果:

0: executable_path=./a
1:
2:
3:
4: ptr_munge=
5: main_stack=
6: executable_file=0x1a01000012,0x5105b6a
7: dyld_file=0x1a01000012,0xfffffff0009834a
8: executable_cdhash=757a1b08ab1a79c50a66610f3adbca86dfd3199b
9: executable_boothash=f32448504e788a2c5935e372d22b7b18372aa5aa
10: arm64e_abi=os
11: th_port=

当这些值到达主函数时,敏感信息已经被删除,否则可能会导致数据泄漏。

在进入主函数之前,可以通过调试查看所有这些有趣的值:

lldb ./apple

(lldb) target create "./a"
当前可执行文件设置为'/tmp/a' (arm64)。
(lldb) process launch -s
[..]

(lldb) mem read $sp
0x16fdff510: 00 00 00 00 01 00 00 00 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00  ................
0x16fdff520: d8 f6 df 6f 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00  ...o............

(lldb) x/55s 0x016fdff6d8
[...]
0x16fdffd6a: "TERM_PROGRAM=WarpTerminal"
0x16fdffd84: "WARP_USE_SSH_WRAPPER=1"
0x16fdffd9b: "WARP_IS_LOCAL_SHELL_SESSION=1"
0x16fdffdb9: "SDKROOT=/Applications/Xcode.app/Contents/Developer/Platforms/MacOSX.platform/Developer/SDKs/MacOSX14.4.sdk"
0x16fdffe24: "NVM_DIR=/Users/carlospolop/.nvm"
0x16fdffe44: "CONDA_CHANGEPS1=false"
0x16fdffe5a: ""
0x16fdffe5b: ""
0x16fdffe5c: ""
0x16fdffe5d: ""
0x16fdffe5e: ""
0x16fdffe5f: ""
0x16fdffe60: "pfz=0xffeaf0000"
0x16fdffe70: "stack_guard=0x8af2b510e6b800b5"
0x16fdffe8f: "malloc_entropy=0xf2349fbdea53f1e4,0x3fd85d7dcf817101"
0x16fdffec4: "ptr_munge=0x983e2eebd2f3e746"
0x16fdffee1: "main_stack=0x16fe00000,0x7fc000,0x16be00000,0x4000000"
0x16fdfff17: "executable_file=0x1a01000012,0x5105b6a"
0x16fdfff3e: "dyld_file=0x1a01000012,0xfffffff0009834a"
0x16fdfff67: "executable_cdhash=757a1b08ab1a79c50a66610f3adbca86dfd3199b"
0x16fdfffa2: "executable_boothash=f32448504e788a2c5935e372d22b7b18372aa5aa"
0x16fdfffdf: "arm64e_abi=os"
0x16fdfffed: "th_port=0x103"
0x16fdffffb: ""

dyld_all_image_infos

dyld环境变量

调试dyld

有助于了解dyld操作的有趣环境变量:

  • DYLD_PRINT_LIBRARIES

检查加载的每个库:

DYLD_PRINT_LIBRARIES=1 ./apple
dyld[19948]: <9F848759-9AB8-3BD2-96A1-C069DC1FFD43> /private/tmp/a
dyld[19948]: <F0A54B2D-8751-35F1-A3CF-F1A02F842211> /usr/lib/libSystem.B.dylib
dyld[19948]: <C683623C-1FF6-3133-9E28-28672FDBA4D3> /usr/lib/system/libcache.dylib
dyld[19948]: <BFDF8F55-D3DC-3A92-B8A1-8EF165A56F1B> /usr/lib/system/libcommonCrypto.dylib
dyld[19948]: <B29A99B2-7ADE-3371-A774-B690BEC3C406> /usr/lib/system/libcompiler_rt.dylib
dyld[19948]: <65612C42-C5E4-3821-B71D-DDE620FB014C> /usr/lib/system/libcopyfile.dylib
dyld[19948]: <B3AC12C0-8ED6-35A2-86C6-0BFA55BFF333> /usr/lib/system/libcorecrypto.dylib
dyld[19948]: <8790BA20-19EC-3A36-8975-E34382D9747C> /usr/lib/system/libdispatch.dylib
dyld[19948]: <4BB77515-DBA8-3EDF-9AF7-3C9EAE959EA6> /usr/lib/system/libdyld.dylib
dyld[19948]: <F7CE9486-FFF5-3CB8-B26F-75811EF4283A> /usr/lib/system/libkeymgr.dylib
dyld[19948]: <1A7038EC-EE49-35AE-8A3C-C311083795FB> /usr/lib/system/libmacho.dylib
[...]
  • DYLD_PRINT_SEGMENTS

检查每个库是如何加载的:

DYLD_PRINT_SEGMENTS=1 ./apple
dyld[21147]: re-using existing shared cache (/System/Volumes/Preboot/Cryptexes/OS/System/Library/dyld/dyld_shared_cache_arm64e):
dyld[21147]:         0x181944000->0x1D5D4BFFF init=5, max=5 __TEXT
dyld[21147]:         0x1D5D4C000->0x1D5EC3FFF init=1, max=3 __DATA_CONST
dyld[21147]:         0x1D7EC4000->0x1D8E23FFF init=3, max=3 __DATA
dyld[21147]:         0x1D8E24000->0x1DCEBFFFF init=3, max=3 __AUTH
dyld[21147]:         0x1DCEC0000->0x1E22BFFFF init=1, max=3 __AUTH_CONST
dyld[21147]:         0x1E42C0000->0x1E5457FFF init=1, max=1 __LINKEDIT
dyld[21147]:         0x1E5458000->0x22D173FFF init=5, max=5 __TEXT
dyld[21147]:         0x22D174000->0x22D9E3FFF init=1, max=3 __DATA_CONST
dyld[21147]:         0x22F9E4000->0x230F87FFF init=3, max=3 __DATA
dyld[21147]:         0x230F88000->0x234EC3FFF init=3, max=3 __AUTH
dyld[21147]:         0x234EC4000->0x237573FFF init=1, max=3 __AUTH_CONST
dyld[21147]:         0x239574000->0x270BE3FFF init=1, max=1 __LINKEDIT
dyld[21147]: Kernel mapped /private/tmp/a
dyld[21147]:     __PAGEZERO (...) 0x000000904000->0x000101208000
dyld[21147]:         __TEXT (r.x) 0x000100904000->0x000100908000
dyld[21147]:   __DATA_CONST (rw.) 0x000100908000->0x00010090C000
dyld[21147]:     __LINKEDIT (r..) 0x00010090C000->0x000100910000
dyld[21147]: Using mapping in dyld cache for /usr/lib/libSystem.B.dylib
dyld[21147]:         __TEXT (r.x) 0x00018E59D000->0x00018E59F000
dyld[21147]:   __DATA_CONST (rw.) 0x0001D5DFDB98->0x0001D5DFDBA8
dyld[21147]:   __AUTH_CONST (rw.) 0x0001DDE015A8->0x0001DDE01878
dyld[21147]:         __AUTH (rw.) 0x0001D9688650->0x0001D9688658
dyld[21147]:         __DATA (rw.) 0x0001D808AD60->0x0001D808AD68
dyld[21147]:     __LINKEDIT (r..) 0x000239574000->0x000270BE4000
dyld[21147]: Using mapping in dyld cache for /usr/lib/system/libcache.dylib
dyld[21147]:         __TEXT (r.x) 0x00018E597000->0x00018E59D000
dyld[21147]:   __DATA_CONST (rw.) 0x0001D5DFDAF0->0x0001D5DFDB98
dyld[21147]:   __AUTH_CONST (rw.) 0x0001DDE014D0->0x0001DDE015A8
dyld[21147]:     __LINKEDIT (r..) 0x000239574000->0x000270BE4000
[...]
  • DYLD_PRINT_INITIALIZERS

打印每个库初始化程序运行时的信息:

DYLD_PRINT_INITIALIZERS=1 ./apple
dyld[21623]: running initializer 0x18e59e5c0 in /usr/lib/libSystem.B.dylib
[...]

其他

  • DYLD_BIND_AT_LAUNCH: 惰性绑定将使用非惰性绑定解析

  • DYLD_DISABLE_PREFETCH: 禁用对 __DATA 和 __LINKEDIT 内容的预取

  • DYLD_FORCE_FLAT_NAMESPACE: 单级绑定

  • DYLD_[FRAMEWORK/LIBRARY]_PATH | DYLD_FALLBACK_[FRAMEWORK/LIBRARY]_PATH | DYLD_VERSIONED_[FRAMEWORK/LIBRARY]_PATH: 解析路径

  • DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES: 加载特定库

  • DYLD_PRINT_TO_FILE: 将 dyld 调试信息写入文件

  • DYLD_PRINT_APIS: 打印 libdyld API 调用

  • DYLD_PRINT_APIS_APP: 打印主程序调用的 libdyld API

  • DYLD_PRINT_BINDINGS: 绑定时打印符号

  • DYLD_WEAK_BINDINGS: 仅在绑定时打印弱符号

  • DYLD_PRINT_CODE_SIGNATURES: 打印代码签名注册操作

  • DYLD_PRINT_DOFS: 打印加载的 D-Trace 对象格式部分

  • DYLD_PRINT_ENV: 打印 dyld 可见的环境变量

  • DYLD_PRINT_INTERPOSTING: 打印 interposing 操作

  • DYLD_PRINT_LIBRARIES: 打印加载的库

  • DYLD_PRINT_OPTS: 打印加载选项

  • DYLD_REBASING: 打印符号重新定位操作

  • DYLD_RPATHS: 打印 @rpath 的扩展

  • DYLD_PRINT_SEGMENTS: 打印 Mach-O 段的映射

  • DYLD_PRINT_STATISTICS: 打印时间统计信息

  • DYLD_PRINT_STATISTICS_DETAILS: 打印详细的时间统计信息

  • DYLD_PRINT_WARNINGS: 打印警告消息

  • DYLD_SHARED_CACHE_DIR: 用于共享库缓存的路径

  • DYLD_SHARED_REGION: "use", "private", "avoid"

  • DYLD_USE_CLOSURES: 启用闭包

可以通过类似以下方式找到更多内容:

strings /usr/lib/dyld | grep "^DYLD_" | sort -u
find . -type f | xargs grep strcmp| grep key,\ \" | cut -d'"' -f2 | sort -u

参考资料

这是由dyld导出的一个结构,包含有关dyld状态的信息,可以在中找到,包括版本、指向dyld_image_info数组的指针、指向dyld_image_notifier的指针、如果进程与共享缓存分离、是否调用了libSystem初始化程序、指向dyld自身Mach头文件的指针、指向dyld版本字符串的指针...

或者从下载dyld项目,并在文件夹内运行:

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macOS Library Injection
源代码
https://opensource.apple.com/tarballs/dyld/dyld-852.2.tar.gz
*OS Internals, Volume I: User Mode. By Jonathan Levin
htARTE (HackTricks AWS Red Team Expert)
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