hacktricks
  • 👾Welcome!
    • HackTricks
  • 🤩Generic Methodologies & Resources
    • Pentesting Methodology
    • External Recon Methodology
      • Wide Source Code Search
      • Github Dorks & Leaks
    • Pentesting Network
      • DHCPv6
      • EIGRP Attacks
      • GLBP & HSRP Attacks
      • IDS and IPS Evasion
      • Lateral VLAN Segmentation Bypass
      • Network Protocols Explained (ESP)
      • Nmap Summary (ESP)
      • Pentesting IPv6
      • Spoofing LLMNR, NBT-NS, mDNS/DNS and WPAD and Relay Attacks
      • Spoofing SSDP and UPnP Devices with EvilSSDP
    • Pentesting Wifi
      • Evil Twin EAP-TLS
    • Phishing Methodology
      • Clone a Website
      • Detecting Phishing
      • Phishing Files & Documents
    • Basic Forensic Methodology
      • Baseline Monitoring
      • Anti-Forensic Techniques
      • Docker Forensics
      • Image Acquisition & Mount
      • Linux Forensics
      • Malware Analysis
      • Memory dump analysis
        • Volatility - CheatSheet
      • Partitions/File Systems/Carving
        • File/Data Carving & Recovery Tools
      • Pcap Inspection
        • DNSCat pcap analysis
        • Suricata & Iptables cheatsheet
        • USB Keystrokes
        • Wifi Pcap Analysis
        • Wireshark tricks
      • Specific Software/File-Type Tricks
        • Decompile compiled python binaries (exe, elf) - Retreive from .pyc
        • Browser Artifacts
        • Deofuscation vbs (cscript.exe)
        • Local Cloud Storage
        • Office file analysis
        • PDF File analysis
        • PNG tricks
        • Video and Audio file analysis
        • ZIPs tricks
      • Windows Artifacts
        • Interesting Windows Registry Keys
    • Brute Force - CheatSheet
    • Python Sandbox Escape & Pyscript
      • Bypass Python sandboxes
        • LOAD_NAME / LOAD_CONST opcode OOB Read
      • Class Pollution (Python's Prototype Pollution)
      • Python Internal Read Gadgets
      • Pyscript
      • venv
      • Web Requests
      • Bruteforce hash (few chars)
      • Basic Python
    • Exfiltration
    • Tunneling and Port Forwarding
    • Threat Modeling
    • Search Exploits
    • Shells (Linux, Windows, MSFVenom)
      • MSFVenom - CheatSheet
      • Shells - Windows
      • Shells - Linux
      • Full TTYs
  • 🐧Linux Hardening
    • Checklist - Linux Privilege Escalation
    • Linux Privilege Escalation
      • Arbitrary File Write to Root
      • Cisco - vmanage
      • Containerd (ctr) Privilege Escalation
      • D-Bus Enumeration & Command Injection Privilege Escalation
      • Docker Security
        • Abusing Docker Socket for Privilege Escalation
        • AppArmor
        • AuthZ& AuthN - Docker Access Authorization Plugin
        • CGroups
        • Docker --privileged
        • Docker Breakout / Privilege Escalation
          • release_agent exploit - Relative Paths to PIDs
          • Docker release_agent cgroups escape
          • Sensitive Mounts
        • Namespaces
          • CGroup Namespace
          • IPC Namespace
          • PID Namespace
          • Mount Namespace
          • Network Namespace
          • Time Namespace
          • User Namespace
          • UTS Namespace
        • Seccomp
        • Weaponizing Distroless
      • Escaping from Jails
      • euid, ruid, suid
      • Interesting Groups - Linux Privesc
        • lxd/lxc Group - Privilege escalation
      • Logstash
      • ld.so privesc exploit example
      • Linux Active Directory
      • Linux Capabilities
      • NFS no_root_squash/no_all_squash misconfiguration PE
      • Node inspector/CEF debug abuse
      • Payloads to execute
      • RunC Privilege Escalation
      • SELinux
      • Socket Command Injection
      • Splunk LPE and Persistence
      • SSH Forward Agent exploitation
      • Wildcards Spare tricks
    • Useful Linux Commands
    • Bypass Linux Restrictions
      • Bypass FS protections: read-only / no-exec / Distroless
        • DDexec / EverythingExec
    • Linux Environment Variables
    • Linux Post-Exploitation
      • PAM - Pluggable Authentication Modules
    • FreeIPA Pentesting
  • 🍏MacOS Hardening
    • macOS Security & Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Apps - Inspecting, debugging and Fuzzing
        • Introduction to x64
        • Introduction to ARM64v8
      • macOS AppleFS
      • macOS Bypassing Firewalls
      • macOS Defensive Apps
      • macOS GCD - Grand Central Dispatch
      • macOS Kernel & System Extensions
        • macOS IOKit
        • macOS Kernel Extensions
        • macOS Kernel Vulnerabilities
        • macOS System Extensions
      • macOS Network Services & Protocols
      • macOS File Extension & URL scheme app handlers
      • macOS Files, Folders, Binaries & Memory
        • macOS Bundles
        • macOS Installers Abuse
        • macOS Memory Dumping
        • macOS Sensitive Locations & Interesting Daemons
        • macOS Universal binaries & Mach-O Format
      • macOS Objective-C
      • macOS Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Process Abuse
        • macOS Dirty NIB
        • macOS Chromium Injection
        • macOS Electron Applications Injection
        • macOS Function Hooking
        • macOS IPC - Inter Process Communication
          • macOS MIG - Mach Interface Generator
          • macOS XPC
            • macOS XPC Authorization
            • macOS XPC Connecting Process Check
              • macOS PID Reuse
              • macOS xpc_connection_get_audit_token Attack
          • macOS Thread Injection via Task port
        • macOS Java Applications Injection
        • macOS Library Injection
          • macOS Dyld Hijacking & DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES
          • macOS Dyld Process
        • macOS Perl Applications Injection
        • macOS Python Applications Injection
        • macOS Ruby Applications Injection
        • macOS .Net Applications Injection
      • macOS Security Protections
        • macOS Gatekeeper / Quarantine / XProtect
        • macOS Launch/Environment Constraints & Trust Cache
        • macOS Sandbox
          • macOS Default Sandbox Debug
          • macOS Sandbox Debug & Bypass
            • macOS Office Sandbox Bypasses
        • macOS SIP
        • macOS TCC
          • macOS Apple Events
          • macOS TCC Bypasses
            • macOS Apple Scripts
          • macOS TCC Payloads
        • macOS Dangerous Entitlements & TCC perms
        • macOS FS Tricks
          • macOS xattr-acls extra stuff
      • macOS Users
    • macOS Red Teaming
      • macOS MDM
        • Enrolling Devices in Other Organisations
        • macOS Serial Number
      • macOS Keychain
    • macOS Useful Commands
    • macOS Auto Start
  • 🪟Windows Hardening
    • Checklist - Local Windows Privilege Escalation
    • Windows Local Privilege Escalation
      • Abusing Tokens
      • Access Tokens
      • ACLs - DACLs/SACLs/ACEs
      • AppendData/AddSubdirectory permission over service registry
      • Create MSI with WIX
      • COM Hijacking
      • Dll Hijacking
        • Writable Sys Path +Dll Hijacking Privesc
      • DPAPI - Extracting Passwords
      • From High Integrity to SYSTEM with Name Pipes
      • Integrity Levels
      • JuicyPotato
      • Leaked Handle Exploitation
      • MSI Wrapper
      • Named Pipe Client Impersonation
      • Privilege Escalation with Autoruns
      • RoguePotato, PrintSpoofer, SharpEfsPotato, GodPotato
      • SeDebug + SeImpersonate copy token
      • SeImpersonate from High To System
      • Windows C Payloads
    • Active Directory Methodology
      • Abusing Active Directory ACLs/ACEs
        • Shadow Credentials
      • AD Certificates
        • AD CS Account Persistence
        • AD CS Domain Escalation
        • AD CS Domain Persistence
        • AD CS Certificate Theft
      • AD information in printers
      • AD DNS Records
      • ASREPRoast
      • BloodHound & Other AD Enum Tools
      • Constrained Delegation
      • Custom SSP
      • DCShadow
      • DCSync
      • Diamond Ticket
      • DSRM Credentials
      • External Forest Domain - OneWay (Inbound) or bidirectional
      • External Forest Domain - One-Way (Outbound)
      • Golden Ticket
      • Kerberoast
      • Kerberos Authentication
      • Kerberos Double Hop Problem
      • LAPS
      • MSSQL AD Abuse
      • Over Pass the Hash/Pass the Key
      • Pass the Ticket
      • Password Spraying / Brute Force
      • PrintNightmare
      • Force NTLM Privileged Authentication
      • Privileged Groups
      • RDP Sessions Abuse
      • Resource-based Constrained Delegation
      • Security Descriptors
      • SID-History Injection
      • Silver Ticket
      • Skeleton Key
      • Unconstrained Delegation
    • Windows Security Controls
      • UAC - User Account Control
    • NTLM
      • Places to steal NTLM creds
    • Lateral Movement
      • AtExec / SchtasksExec
      • DCOM Exec
      • PsExec/Winexec/ScExec
      • SmbExec/ScExec
      • WinRM
      • WmicExec
    • Pivoting to the Cloud
    • Stealing Windows Credentials
      • Windows Credentials Protections
      • Mimikatz
      • WTS Impersonator
    • Basic Win CMD for Pentesters
    • Basic PowerShell for Pentesters
      • PowerView/SharpView
    • Antivirus (AV) Bypass
  • 📱Mobile Pentesting
    • Android APK Checklist
    • Android Applications Pentesting
      • Android Applications Basics
      • Android Task Hijacking
      • ADB Commands
      • APK decompilers
      • AVD - Android Virtual Device
      • Bypass Biometric Authentication (Android)
      • content:// protocol
      • Drozer Tutorial
        • Exploiting Content Providers
      • Exploiting a debuggeable application
      • Frida Tutorial
        • Frida Tutorial 1
        • Frida Tutorial 2
        • Frida Tutorial 3
        • Objection Tutorial
      • Google CTF 2018 - Shall We Play a Game?
      • Install Burp Certificate
      • Intent Injection
      • Make APK Accept CA Certificate
      • Manual DeObfuscation
      • React Native Application
      • Reversing Native Libraries
      • Smali - Decompiling/[Modifying]/Compiling
      • Spoofing your location in Play Store
      • Tapjacking
      • Webview Attacks
    • iOS Pentesting Checklist
    • iOS Pentesting
      • iOS App Extensions
      • iOS Basics
      • iOS Basic Testing Operations
      • iOS Burp Suite Configuration
      • iOS Custom URI Handlers / Deeplinks / Custom Schemes
      • iOS Extracting Entitlements From Compiled Application
      • iOS Frida Configuration
      • iOS Hooking With Objection
      • iOS Protocol Handlers
      • iOS Serialisation and Encoding
      • iOS Testing Environment
      • iOS UIActivity Sharing
      • iOS Universal Links
      • iOS UIPasteboard
      • iOS WebViews
    • Cordova Apps
    • Xamarin Apps
  • 👽Network Services Pentesting
    • Pentesting JDWP - Java Debug Wire Protocol
    • Pentesting Printers
    • Pentesting SAP
    • Pentesting VoIP
      • Basic VoIP Protocols
        • SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
    • Pentesting Remote GdbServer
    • 7/tcp/udp - Pentesting Echo
    • 21 - Pentesting FTP
      • FTP Bounce attack - Scan
      • FTP Bounce - Download 2ºFTP file
    • 22 - Pentesting SSH/SFTP
    • 23 - Pentesting Telnet
    • 25,465,587 - Pentesting SMTP/s
      • SMTP Smuggling
      • SMTP - Commands
    • 43 - Pentesting WHOIS
    • 49 - Pentesting TACACS+
    • 53 - Pentesting DNS
    • 69/UDP TFTP/Bittorrent-tracker
    • 79 - Pentesting Finger
    • 80,443 - Pentesting Web Methodology
      • 403 & 401 Bypasses
      • AEM - Adobe Experience Cloud
      • Angular
      • Apache
      • Artifactory Hacking guide
      • Bolt CMS
      • Buckets
        • Firebase Database
      • CGI
      • DotNetNuke (DNN)
      • Drupal
      • Electron Desktop Apps
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via preload code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via Electron internal code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via IPC
      • Flask
      • NodeJS Express
      • Git
      • Golang
      • GWT - Google Web Toolkit
      • Grafana
      • GraphQL
      • H2 - Java SQL database
      • IIS - Internet Information Services
      • ImageMagick Security
      • JBOSS
      • JIRA
      • Joomla
      • JSP
      • Laravel
      • Moodle
      • Nginx
      • PHP Tricks
        • PHP - Useful Functions & disable_functions/open_basedir bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - php-fpm/FastCGI
          • disable_functions bypass - dl function
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 7.0-7.4 (*nix only)
          • disable_functions bypass - Imagick <= 3.3.0 PHP >= 5.4 Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.x Shellshock Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.2.4 ionCube extension Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP <= 5.2.9 on windows
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.4 and 5.2.5 PHP cURL
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP safe_mode bypass via proc_open() and custom environment Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP Perl Extension Safe_mode Bypass Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.3 - Win32std ext Protections Bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2 - FOpen Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - via mem
          • disable_functions bypass - mod_cgi
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 4 >= 4.2.0, PHP 5 pcntl_exec
        • PHP - RCE abusing object creation: new $_GET["a"]($_GET["b"])
        • PHP SSRF
      • Python
      • Rocket Chat
      • Special HTTP headers
      • Source code Review / SAST Tools
      • Spring Actuators
      • Symfony
      • Tomcat
        • Basic Tomcat Info
      • Uncovering CloudFlare
      • VMWare (ESX, VCenter...)
      • WAF Bypass
      • Web API Pentesting
      • WebDav
      • Werkzeug / Flask Debug
      • Wordpress
    • 88tcp/udp - Pentesting Kerberos
      • Harvesting tickets from Windows
      • Harvesting tickets from Linux
    • 110,995 - Pentesting POP
    • 111/TCP/UDP - Pentesting Portmapper
    • 113 - Pentesting Ident
    • 123/udp - Pentesting NTP
    • 135, 593 - Pentesting MSRPC
    • 137,138,139 - Pentesting NetBios
    • 139,445 - Pentesting SMB
      • rpcclient enumeration
    • 143,993 - Pentesting IMAP
    • 161,162,10161,10162/udp - Pentesting SNMP
      • Cisco SNMP
      • SNMP RCE
    • 194,6667,6660-7000 - Pentesting IRC
    • 264 - Pentesting Check Point FireWall-1
    • 389, 636, 3268, 3269 - Pentesting LDAP
    • 500/udp - Pentesting IPsec/IKE VPN
    • 502 - Pentesting Modbus
    • 512 - Pentesting Rexec
    • 513 - Pentesting Rlogin
    • 514 - Pentesting Rsh
    • 515 - Pentesting Line Printer Daemon (LPD)
    • 548 - Pentesting Apple Filing Protocol (AFP)
    • 554,8554 - Pentesting RTSP
    • 623/UDP/TCP - IPMI
    • 631 - Internet Printing Protocol(IPP)
    • 700 - Pentesting EPP
    • 873 - Pentesting Rsync
    • 1026 - Pentesting Rusersd
    • 1080 - Pentesting Socks
    • 1098/1099/1050 - Pentesting Java RMI - RMI-IIOP
    • 1414 - Pentesting IBM MQ
    • 1433 - Pentesting MSSQL - Microsoft SQL Server
      • Types of MSSQL Users
    • 1521,1522-1529 - Pentesting Oracle TNS Listener
    • 1723 - Pentesting PPTP
    • 1883 - Pentesting MQTT (Mosquitto)
    • 2049 - Pentesting NFS Service
    • 2301,2381 - Pentesting Compaq/HP Insight Manager
    • 2375, 2376 Pentesting Docker
    • 3128 - Pentesting Squid
    • 3260 - Pentesting ISCSI
    • 3299 - Pentesting SAPRouter
    • 3306 - Pentesting Mysql
    • 3389 - Pentesting RDP
    • 3632 - Pentesting distcc
    • 3690 - Pentesting Subversion (svn server)
    • 3702/UDP - Pentesting WS-Discovery
    • 4369 - Pentesting Erlang Port Mapper Daemon (epmd)
    • 4786 - Cisco Smart Install
    • 4840 - OPC Unified Architecture
    • 5000 - Pentesting Docker Registry
    • 5353/UDP Multicast DNS (mDNS) and DNS-SD
    • 5432,5433 - Pentesting Postgresql
    • 5439 - Pentesting Redshift
    • 5555 - Android Debug Bridge
    • 5601 - Pentesting Kibana
    • 5671,5672 - Pentesting AMQP
    • 5800,5801,5900,5901 - Pentesting VNC
    • 5984,6984 - Pentesting CouchDB
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting WinRM
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting OMI
    • 6000 - Pentesting X11
    • 6379 - Pentesting Redis
    • 8009 - Pentesting Apache JServ Protocol (AJP)
    • 8086 - Pentesting InfluxDB
    • 8089 - Pentesting Splunkd
    • 8333,18333,38333,18444 - Pentesting Bitcoin
    • 9000 - Pentesting FastCGI
    • 9001 - Pentesting HSQLDB
    • 9042/9160 - Pentesting Cassandra
    • 9100 - Pentesting Raw Printing (JetDirect, AppSocket, PDL-datastream)
    • 9200 - Pentesting Elasticsearch
    • 10000 - Pentesting Network Data Management Protocol (ndmp)
    • 11211 - Pentesting Memcache
      • Memcache Commands
    • 15672 - Pentesting RabbitMQ Management
    • 24007,24008,24009,49152 - Pentesting GlusterFS
    • 27017,27018 - Pentesting MongoDB
    • 44134 - Pentesting Tiller (Helm)
    • 44818/UDP/TCP - Pentesting EthernetIP
    • 47808/udp - Pentesting BACNet
    • 50030,50060,50070,50075,50090 - Pentesting Hadoop
  • 🕸️Pentesting Web
    • Web Vulnerabilities Methodology
    • Reflecting Techniques - PoCs and Polygloths CheatSheet
      • Web Vulns List
    • 2FA/OTP Bypass
    • Account Takeover
    • Browser Extension Pentesting Methodology
      • BrowExt - ClickJacking
      • BrowExt - permissions & host_permissions
      • BrowExt - XSS Example
    • Bypass Payment Process
    • Captcha Bypass
    • Cache Poisoning and Cache Deception
      • Cache Poisoning to DoS
    • Clickjacking
    • Client Side Template Injection (CSTI)
    • Client Side Path Traversal
    • Command Injection
    • Content Security Policy (CSP) Bypass
      • CSP bypass: self + 'unsafe-inline' with Iframes
    • Cookies Hacking
      • Cookie Tossing
      • Cookie Jar Overflow
      • Cookie Bomb
    • CORS - Misconfigurations & Bypass
    • CRLF (%0D%0A) Injection
    • CSRF (Cross Site Request Forgery)
    • Dangling Markup - HTML scriptless injection
      • SS-Leaks
    • Dependency Confusion
    • Deserialization
      • NodeJS - __proto__ & prototype Pollution
        • Client Side Prototype Pollution
        • Express Prototype Pollution Gadgets
        • Prototype Pollution to RCE
      • Java JSF ViewState (.faces) Deserialization
      • Java DNS Deserialization, GadgetProbe and Java Deserialization Scanner
      • Basic Java Deserialization (ObjectInputStream, readObject)
      • PHP - Deserialization + Autoload Classes
      • CommonsCollection1 Payload - Java Transformers to Rutime exec() and Thread Sleep
      • Basic .Net deserialization (ObjectDataProvider gadget, ExpandedWrapper, and Json.Net)
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE knowing the secrets
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE without knowing the secrets
      • Python Yaml Deserialization
      • JNDI - Java Naming and Directory Interface & Log4Shell
    • Domain/Subdomain takeover
    • Email Injections
    • File Inclusion/Path traversal
      • phar:// deserialization
      • LFI2RCE via PHP Filters
      • LFI2RCE via Nginx temp files
      • LFI2RCE via PHP_SESSION_UPLOAD_PROGRESS
      • LFI2RCE via Segmentation Fault
      • LFI2RCE via phpinfo()
      • LFI2RCE Via temp file uploads
      • LFI2RCE via Eternal waiting
      • LFI2RCE Via compress.zlib + PHP_STREAM_PREFER_STUDIO + Path Disclosure
    • File Upload
      • PDF Upload - XXE and CORS bypass
    • Formula/CSV/Doc/LaTeX/GhostScript Injection
    • gRPC-Web Pentest
    • HTTP Connection Contamination
    • HTTP Connection Request Smuggling
    • HTTP Request Smuggling / HTTP Desync Attack
      • Browser HTTP Request Smuggling
      • Request Smuggling in HTTP/2 Downgrades
    • HTTP Response Smuggling / Desync
    • Upgrade Header Smuggling
    • hop-by-hop headers
    • IDOR
    • Integer Overflow
    • JWT Vulnerabilities (Json Web Tokens)
    • LDAP Injection
    • Login Bypass
      • Login bypass List
    • NoSQL injection
    • OAuth to Account takeover
    • Open Redirect
    • Parameter Pollution
    • Phone Number Injections
    • PostMessage Vulnerabilities
      • Blocking main page to steal postmessage
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 1
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 2
      • Steal postmessage modifying iframe location
    • Proxy / WAF Protections Bypass
    • Race Condition
    • Rate Limit Bypass
    • Registration & Takeover Vulnerabilities
    • Regular expression Denial of Service - ReDoS
    • Reset/Forgotten Password Bypass
    • SAML Attacks
      • SAML Basics
    • Server Side Inclusion/Edge Side Inclusion Injection
    • SQL Injection
      • MS Access SQL Injection
      • MSSQL Injection
      • MySQL injection
        • MySQL File priv to SSRF/RCE
      • Oracle injection
      • Cypher Injection (neo4j)
      • PostgreSQL injection
        • dblink/lo_import data exfiltration
        • PL/pgSQL Password Bruteforce
        • Network - Privesc, Port Scanner and NTLM chanllenge response disclosure
        • Big Binary Files Upload (PostgreSQL)
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Languages
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Extensions
      • SQLMap - Cheetsheat
        • Second Order Injection - SQLMap
    • SSRF (Server Side Request Forgery)
      • URL Format Bypass
      • SSRF Vulnerable Platforms
      • Cloud SSRF
    • SSTI (Server Side Template Injection)
      • EL - Expression Language
      • Jinja2 SSTI
    • Reverse Tab Nabbing
    • Unicode Injection
      • Unicode Normalization
    • WebSocket Attacks
    • Web Tool - WFuzz
    • XPATH injection
    • XSLT Server Side Injection (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations)
    • XXE - XEE - XML External Entity
    • XSS (Cross Site Scripting)
      • Abusing Service Workers
      • Chrome Cache to XSS
      • Debugging Client Side JS
      • Dom Clobbering
      • DOM Invader
      • DOM XSS
      • Iframes in XSS, CSP and SOP
      • JS Hoisting
      • Misc JS Tricks & Relevant Info
      • PDF Injection
      • Server Side XSS (Dynamic PDF)
      • Shadow DOM
      • SOME - Same Origin Method Execution
      • Sniff Leak
      • Steal Info JS
      • XSS in Markdown
    • XSSI (Cross-Site Script Inclusion)
    • XS-Search/XS-Leaks
      • Connection Pool Examples
      • Connection Pool by Destination Example
      • Cookie Bomb + Onerror XS Leak
      • URL Max Length - Client Side
      • performance.now example
      • performance.now + Force heavy task
      • Event Loop Blocking + Lazy images
      • JavaScript Execution XS Leak
      • CSS Injection
        • CSS Injection Code
  • ⛈️Cloud Security
    • Pentesting Kubernetes
    • Pentesting Cloud (AWS, GCP, Az...)
    • Pentesting CI/CD (Github, Jenkins, Terraform...)
  • 😎Hardware/Physical Access
    • Physical Attacks
    • Escaping from KIOSKs
    • Firmware Analysis
      • Bootloader testing
      • Firmware Integrity
  • 🎯Binary Exploitation
    • Basic Binary Exploitation Methodology
      • ELF Basic Information
      • Exploiting Tools
        • PwnTools
    • Stack Overflow
      • Pointer Redirecting
      • Ret2win
        • Ret2win - arm64
      • Stack Shellcode
        • Stack Shellcode - arm64
      • Stack Pivoting - EBP2Ret - EBP chaining
      • Uninitialized Variables
    • ROP - Return Oriented Programing
      • BROP - Blind Return Oriented Programming
      • Ret2csu
      • Ret2dlresolve
      • Ret2esp / Ret2reg
      • Ret2lib
        • Leaking libc address with ROP
          • Leaking libc - template
        • One Gadget
        • Ret2lib + Printf leak - arm64
      • Ret2syscall
        • Ret2syscall - ARM64
      • Ret2vDSO
      • SROP - Sigreturn-Oriented Programming
        • SROP - ARM64
    • Array Indexing
    • Integer Overflow
    • Format Strings
      • Format Strings - Arbitrary Read Example
      • Format Strings Template
    • Heap
      • Use After Free
      • Heap Overflow
    • Common Binary Exploitation Protections & Bypasses
      • ASLR
        • Ret2plt
        • Ret2ret & Reo2pop
      • CET & Shadow Stack
      • Libc Protections
      • Memory Tagging Extension (MTE)
      • No-exec / NX
      • PIE
        • BF Addresses in the Stack
      • Relro
      • Stack Canaries
        • BF Forked & Threaded Stack Canaries
        • Print Stack Canary
    • Write What Where 2 Exec
      • WWW2Exec - atexit()
      • WWW2Exec - .dtors & .fini_array
      • WWW2Exec - GOT/PLT
      • WWW2Exec - __malloc_hook
    • Common Exploiting Problems
    • Windows Exploiting (Basic Guide - OSCP lvl)
    • Linux Exploiting (Basic) (SPA)
  • 🔩Reversing
    • Reversing Tools & Basic Methods
      • Angr
        • Angr - Examples
      • Z3 - Satisfiability Modulo Theories (SMT)
      • Cheat Engine
      • Blobrunner
    • Common API used in Malware
    • Word Macros
  • 🔮Crypto & Stego
    • Cryptographic/Compression Algorithms
      • Unpacking binaries
    • Certificates
    • Cipher Block Chaining CBC-MAC
    • Crypto CTFs Tricks
    • Electronic Code Book (ECB)
    • Hash Length Extension Attack
    • Padding Oracle
    • RC4 - Encrypt&Decrypt
    • Stego Tricks
    • Esoteric languages
    • Blockchain & Crypto Currencies
  • 🦂C2
    • Salseo
    • ICMPsh
    • Cobalt Strike
  • ✍️TODO
    • Other Big References
    • Rust Basics
    • More Tools
    • MISC
    • Pentesting DNS
    • Hardware Hacking
      • I2C
      • UART
      • Radio
      • JTAG
      • SPI
    • Radio Hacking
      • Pentesting RFID
      • Infrared
      • Sub-GHz RF
      • iButton
      • Flipper Zero
        • FZ - NFC
        • FZ - Sub-GHz
        • FZ - Infrared
        • FZ - iButton
        • FZ - 125kHz RFID
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由 GitBook 提供支持
在本页
  • 介绍
  • 收集信息
  • 获取固件
  • 分析固件
  • 获取文件系统
  • 分析固件
  • 初始分析工具
  • 提取文件系统
  • 文件系统分析
  • 对已编译二进制文件进行安全检查
  • 模拟固件进行动态分析
  • 模拟单个二进制文件
  • MIPS架构仿真
  • ARM架构仿真
  • 完整系统仿真
  • 实践中的动态分析
  • 运行时分析技术
  • 二进制利用和概念验证
  • 用于固件分析的准备操作系统
  • 用于分析固件的准备操作系统
  • 用于练习的易受攻击固件
  • 参考资料
  • 培训和认证
  1. Hardware/Physical Access

Firmware Analysis

上一页Escaping from KIOSKs下一页Bootloader testing

最后更新于1年前

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介绍

固件是一种基本软件,通过管理和促进硬件组件与用户交互的软件之间的通信,使设备能够正确运行。它存储在永久性存储器中,确保设备可以从通电时刻起访问重要指令,从而启动操作系统。检查和可能修改固件是识别安全漏洞的关键步骤。

收集信息

收集信息是了解设备构成和使用的技术的关键初始步骤。这个过程涉及收集以下数据:

  • CPU架构和运行的操作系统

  • 引导加载程序的具体信息

  • 硬件布局和数据表

  • 代码库指标和源位置

  • 外部库和许可证类型

  • 更新历史和监管认证

  • 架构和流程图

  • 安全评估和已识别的漏洞

获取固件

获取固件可以通过各种方式进行,每种方式都有其自己的复杂程度:

  • 直接从源头(开发人员、制造商)

  • 根据提供的说明构建固件

  • 从官方支持站点下载

  • 利用Google dork查询查找托管的固件文件

  • 通过中间人技术拦截更新

  • 通过UART、JTAG或PICit等连接从设备提取

  • 在设备通信中嗅探更新请求

  • 识别和使用硬编码的更新端点

  • 从引导加载程序或网络转储

  • 当一切失败时,移除和读取存储芯片,使用适当的硬件工具

分析固件

现在您已经获得了固件,您需要提取有关固件的信息,以了解如何处理它。您可以使用不同的工具进行此操作:

file <bin>
strings -n8 <bin>
strings -tx <bin> #print offsets in hex
hexdump -C -n 512 <bin> > hexdump.out
hexdump -C <bin> | head # might find signatures in header
fdisk -lu <bin> #lists a drives partition and filesystems if multiple

如果使用这些工具没有找到太多信息,请使用 binwalk -E <bin> 检查图像的熵,如果熵低,则不太可能被加密。如果熵高,则很可能被加密(或以某种方式被压缩)。

此外,您可以使用这些工具来提取嵌入在固件中的文件:

获取文件系统

通过之前提到的工具,如 binwalk -ev <bin>,您应该已经能够提取文件系统。 Binwalk通常会将其提取到一个以文件系统类型命名的文件夹中,通常是以下之一:squashfs、ubifs、romfs、rootfs、jffs2、yaffs2、cramfs、initramfs。

手动提取文件系统

有时,binwalk 在其签名中没有文件系统的魔术字节。在这些情况下,使用binwalk来找到文件系统的偏移量并从二进制文件中切割压缩的文件系统,然后根据其类型手动提取文件系统,按照以下步骤操作。

$ binwalk DIR850L_REVB.bin

DECIMAL HEXADECIMAL DESCRIPTION
----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---

0 0x0 DLOB firmware header, boot partition: """"dev=/dev/mtdblock/1""""
10380 0x288C LZMA compressed data, properties: 0x5D, dictionary size: 8388608 bytes, uncompressed size: 5213748 bytes
1704052 0x1A0074 PackImg section delimiter tag, little endian size: 32256 bytes; big endian size: 8257536 bytes
1704084 0x1A0094 Squashfs filesystem, little endian, version 4.0, compression:lzma, size: 8256900 bytes, 2688 inodes, blocksize: 131072 bytes, created: 2016-07-12 02:28:41

运行以下 dd 命令 对 Squashfs 文件系统进行切割。

$ dd if=DIR850L_REVB.bin bs=1 skip=1704084 of=dir.squashfs

8257536+0 records in

8257536+0 records out

8257536 bytes (8.3 MB, 7.9 MiB) copied, 12.5777 s, 657 kB/s

Alternatively, you can run the following command.

$ dd if=DIR850L_REVB.bin bs=1 skip=$((0x1A0094)) of=dir.squashfs

  • 对于 squashfs(在上面的示例中使用)

$ unsquashfs dir.squashfs

文件将位于“squashfs-root”目录中。

  • CPIO 存档文件

$ cpio -ivd --no-absolute-filenames -F <bin>

  • 对于 jffs2 文件系统

$ jefferson rootfsfile.jffs2

  • 对于 NAND 闪存的 ubifs 文件系统

$ ubireader_extract_images -u UBI -s <start_offset> <bin>

$ ubidump.py <bin>

分析固件

获取固件后,解剖固件以了解其结构和潜在漏洞至关重要。这个过程涉及使用各种工具来分析并从固件映像中提取有价值的数据。

初始分析工具

提供了一组命令,用于对二进制文件(称为 <bin>)进行初始检查。这些命令有助于识别文件类型,提取字符串,分析二进制数据,并了解分区和文件系统的详细信息:

file <bin>
strings -n8 <bin>
strings -tx <bin> #prints offsets in hexadecimal
hexdump -C -n 512 <bin> > hexdump.out
hexdump -C <bin> | head #useful for finding signatures in the header
fdisk -lu <bin> #lists partitions and filesystems, if there are multiple

评估图像的加密状态,可以使用 binwalk -E <bin> 检查熵。低熵表明缺乏加密,而高熵则表明可能存在加密或压缩。

要提取嵌入文件,建议使用file-data-carving-recovery-tools文档和binvis.io进行文件检查。

提取文件系统

使用 binwalk -ev <bin>,通常可以提取文件系统,通常会提取到以文件系统类型命名的目录中(例如 squashfs、ubifs)。但是,当binwalk由于缺少魔术字节而无法识别文件系统类型时,就需要进行手动提取。这涉及使用 binwalk 定位文件系统的偏移量,然后使用 dd 命令切割出文件系统:

$ binwalk DIR850L_REVB.bin

$ dd if=DIR850L_REVB.bin bs=1 skip=1704084 of=dir.squashfs

文件系统分析

文件系统提取后,开始搜索安全漏洞。注意不安全的网络守护程序、硬编码凭据、API 端点、更新服务器功能、未编译代码、启动脚本以及用于离线分析的已编译二进制文件。

需要检查的关键位置和项目包括:

  • etc/shadow 和 etc/passwd 中的用户凭据

  • etc/ssl 中的 SSL 证书和密钥

  • 潜在漏洞的配置和脚本文件

  • 用于进一步分析的嵌入式二进制文件

  • 常见物联网设备的 Web 服务器和二进制文件

有几种工具可帮助揭示文件系统中的敏感信息和漏洞:

对已编译二进制文件进行安全检查

必须仔细审查文件系统中找到的源代码和已编译二进制文件以查找漏洞。像 checksec.sh 用于 Unix 二进制文件,PESecurity 用于 Windows 二进制文件等工具有助于识别可能被利用的未受保护的二进制文件。

模拟固件进行动态分析

模拟固件的过程使得可以对设备的操作或单个程序进行动态分析。这种方法可能会遇到硬件或架构依赖性的挑战,但将根文件系统或特定二进制文件传输到具有匹配架构和字节序的设备(如树莓派)或预构建的虚拟机,可以促进进一步测试。

模拟单个二进制文件

对于检查单个程序,识别程序的字节序和 CPU 架构至关重要。

MIPS 架构示例

要模拟 MIPS 架构二进制文件,可以使用以下命令:

file ./squashfs-root/bin/busybox

并安装必要的仿真工具:

sudo apt-get install qemu qemu-user qemu-user-static qemu-system-arm qemu-system-mips qemu-system-x86 qemu-utils

MIPS架构仿真

对于MIPS(大端)架构,使用qemu-mips,对于小端二进制文件,选择qemu-mipsel。

ARM架构仿真

对于ARM二进制文件,过程类似,使用qemu-arm仿真器进行仿真。

完整系统仿真

实践中的动态分析

在此阶段,使用真实或仿真设备环境进行分析。保持对操作系统和文件系统的shell访问至关重要。仿真可能无法完全模拟硬件交互,可能需要偶尔重新启动仿真。分析应重新查看文件系统,利用暴露的网页和网络服务,探索引导加载程序漏洞。固件完整性测试对于识别潜在后门漏洞至关重要。

运行时分析技术

运行时分析涉及使用诸如gdb-multiarch、Frida和Ghidra等工具与进程或二进制文件在其操作环境中交互,通过模糊测试等技术设置断点并识别漏洞。

二进制利用和概念验证

为已识别的漏洞开发概念验证(PoC)需要深入了解目标架构并使用低级语言进行编程。嵌入式系统中的二进制运行时保护很少见,但存在时,可能需要使用Return Oriented Programming(ROP)等技术。

用于固件分析的准备操作系统

用于分析固件的准备操作系统

用于练习的易受攻击固件

要练习在固件中发现漏洞,可以使用以下易受攻击的固件项目作为起点。

  • OWASP IoTGoat

  • The Damn Vulnerable Router Firmware Project

  • Damn Vulnerable ARM Router (DVAR)

  • ARM-X

  • Azeria Labs VM 2.0

  • Damn Vulnerable IoT Device (DVID)

参考资料

培训和认证

为此,**开源情报(OSINT)**工具是非常宝贵的,通过手动和自动审查过程分析任何可用的开源软件组件。像和这样的工具提供免费的静态分析,可用于发现潜在问题。

直接访问云存储,使用诸如之类的工具

或者使用 () 来检查文件。

和 用于搜索敏感信息

用于全面的固件分析

、、 和 用于静态和动态分析

类似、等工具可实现完整固件仿真,自动化流程并协助动态分析。

操作系统如和提供了预配置的固件安全测试环境,配备必要工具。

:AttifyOS是一个旨在帮助您执行物联网(IoT)设备的安全评估和渗透测试的发行版。通过提供预配置环境并加载所有必要工具,为您节省大量时间。

:基于Ubuntu 18.04的嵌入式安全测试操作系统,预装有固件安全测试工具。

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htARTE(HackTricks AWS Red Team Expert)
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https://github.com/OWASP/IoTGoat
https://github.com/praetorian-code/DVRF
https://blog.exploitlab.net/2018/01/dvar-damn-vulnerable-arm-router.html
https://github.com/therealsaumil/armx#downloads
https://azeria-labs.com/lab-vm-2-0/
https://github.com/Vulcainreo/DVID
https://scriptingxss.gitbook.io/firmware-security-testing-methodology/
Practical IoT Hacking: The Definitive Guide to Attacking the Internet of Things
https://www.attify-store.com/products/offensive-iot-exploitation